Dimensions of International Negotiation: A Test of Iklé's Typology

Results from statistical analyses of 30 cases of international negotiations supported Iklé's typology of negotiating objectives. The cases, sampled from the collection of Pew Case Studies in International Affairs, were distinguished in terms of five objectives: innovation, redistribution, extension, normalization, and side effects. In addition, a sixth objective was identified: negotiations concerning the creation of multilateral regimes. These cases focused on issues that surfaced on the international agenda during the 1980s. Each type had a relatively distinct profile based on such aspects of negotiation as the number of parties and issues, bargaining strategies, media exposure, stability of the process, and types of outcomes. The methodology contributes to the state-of-the art in comparative analysis and the results have implications for the development of middle-range theories of negotiation. They also contribute to practice, by enabling negotiators to evaluate future cases in terms of knowledge about past cases.     

Issue linkage and issue tie-in in multilateral negotiations

We describe a model of international, multidimensional policy coordination where countries can enter into selective and separate agreements with different partners along different policy dimensions. The model is used to examine the implications of negotiation tie-in — the requirement that agreements must span multiple dimensions of interaction — for the viability of multilateral cooperation when countries are linked by international trade flows and transboundary pollution. We show that, while in some cases negotiation tie-in has either no effect or can make multilateral cooperation more viable, in others a formal tie-in constraint can make an otherwise viable joint multilateral agreement unstable.     

世贸组织中的国际贸易与环境保护:问题与展望

国际贸易与环境保护的关系是近几年来国际经济领域的一个重要问题。论文分析了贸易与环境涉及的主要问题,指出世贸组织这一多边贸易体制处理环境保护问题时存在一定的难度,问题出在世贸组织既定的原则对环境的适用性上面。世贸组织的贸易政策条款需要一定的灵活性以处理环境保护问题,否则环境保护会成为世贸组织的一个不解之题。     

Are There Such Things as International Property Rights?

This paper argues that the process of economic globalisation is to remain partial, because of its continued reliance upon the national institutions in charge of the definition and enforcement of private property rights. Emerging economies often face critical enforcement problems, but the experience of the European Single Market also suggests that, in this respect, institutional convergence remains extremely slow. Second, the globalisation process since 1990 has seen a sharp growth in private inter‐temporal contracts, exemplified by private financial transactions and by contracting on intellectual property rights; both are much more vulnerable to local institutional failures than trade in tangible goods and sovereign credits, which were the hallmark of previous phases of international liberalisation. Thus the ‘frontier’ of globalisation now makes markets more exposed to the underlying fragmentation of national property institution than before. This suggests that multilateral negotiation, as an instrument for the coordination of State institutions, will remain the backbone of international economic integration.     

Dimensions of International Negotiations: Structures, Processes, and Outcomes

Cases of international negotiation are compared in terms of their similarities and dissimilarities. Using both primary and secondary source materials, each case is coded in terms of aspects of the issues, structure, situation, processes, and outcomes of negotiation. One analysis consisted of 23 cases in which Austrian delegations participated. Multidimensional scaling results indicated that a key dimension was the distinction between small bilateral talks and larger multilateral negotiations. Bilateral talks were more likely to be characterized by treaties, low turnover, stage-like processes, and no deadlines. Correlational findings also showed that outside influences had stronger impacts on outcomes than such internal factors as bureaucratic support. A second scaling analysis, based on cases published by the Johns Hopkins' Foreign Policy Institute, produced two dimensions, number and complexity of the issues. The groupings of the cases also corresponded to Ikle's distinctions among types of negotiation. Correlational findings indicated relationships among aspects of the negotiating situation and outcomes. The article concludes with a comparison of the two analyses.     

Trade Policy in a Small Advanced Transition Economy: Trade Policy Review of Slovenia, 2002

The aim of this paper is a commentary to the first Trade Policy Review (TPR) of Slovenia and to shed more light on the background of the whole process of trade liberalisation and transition in Slovenia during the 1990s. The TPR praises Slovenia for its sound trade regime, which is in conformity to Slovenia's commitments to the multilateral trading system and detects only a few open issues. The paper puts these issues in a broader context of Slovenia's trade liberalisation after independence in 1991 and recent harmonisation with the EU in the pre‐accession negotiation process. Although there is much scope for improvements in Slovenia's trade policies and practices, one should note that most of the open issues raised would disappear anyway upon Slovenia's accession to the EU by 1 May, 2004, and by subsequent adoption of the CET and full implementation of the acquis communautaire. Some of the problems, such as strong government support to agriculture implemented by Slovenia due to harmonisation with the EU's CAP should, however, be challenged at the broader multilateral level in the framework of the Doha Development Agenda.     

Backward stealing and forward manipulation in the WTO

Motivated by the structure of WTO negotiations, we analyze a bargaining environment in which negotiations proceed bilaterally and sequentially under the most-favored-nation (MFN) principle. We identify backward-stealing and forward-manipulation problems that arise when governments bargain under the MFN principle in a sequential fashion. We show that these problems impede governments from achieving the multilateral efficiency frontier unless further rules of negotiation are imposed. We identify the WTO nullification-or-impairment and renegotiation provisions and its reciprocity norm as rules that are capable of providing solutions to these problems. In this way, we suggest that WTO rules can facilitate the negotiation of efficient multilateral trade agreements in a world in which the addition of new and economically significant countries to the world trading system is an ongoing process.     

International Business Negotiations A Turn-Key Project

The article describes and analyses the negotiation process between a Swedish supplier and an African customer. Although the literature on international business negotiations is very poor, it is reviewed; a model for international business negotiations is developed and then utilised to describe and analyse a case-study. The factors influencing the negotiation process are identified and conclusions are drawn; the process took a very long time, more than two years, and a number of unexpected issues caused interference in the process. The differences in cultural background and the atmosphere between the parties strongly affected their chances of reaching a mutually satisfactory agreement.     

TPP国家经济的比较性分析及影响研究

TPP作为一个APEC框架下的多边自由贸易协定,随着2009年美国的高调加入,引发了全球尤其是亚太经济体的广泛关注。但现有文献的研究多集中于政治战略层面,缺乏从某一具体层面对TPP进行深入剖析。本文结合TPP谈判的最新进展,从经济总量、贸易总量及贸易结构多角度对TPP国家经济进行比较性分析,进而研究TPP对亚太区域经济一体化产生的各种影响。     

Conflict analysis of the NAFTA negotiations

The 1991–92 negotiations for a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are modelled at two points in time during the negotiation process from a Mexican perspective. The first model in February 1992 captures the positions of the parties on several key issues. The second model in April 1992 concentrates on the energy issue, which is of particular importance to Mexico. The formal model provided a framework for structuring the negotiation, and a communications medium for discussing and recording it. The analyses were fairly accurate as predictors of events and could have been effective in giving advice to the negotiations.     

Logrolling Procedure for Multi-Issue Negotiation

In order to better deal with the complexity in multi-issue negotiation, a quantitative method which produces Pareto optimal solutions through jointly improving exchange of issues is proposed. The trade-off process is modelled using logrolling, in which loss in some issues is traded for gain in others, resulting in overall gain for all parties. This mutual gain approach is designed based on the integrative negotiation strategy. The objective of the logrolling method is in negotiation support by providing a structure and systematic analysis for ill-defined multi-issue negotiation problems. This study presents a formal representation of logrolling, the sequential logrolling procedure that is based on the exchange of two issues, and the general properties of the efficient frontier produced by logrolling under a linear preference assumption. The study also includes some discussion on implementation aspects of the logrolling method.     

How to Attain Desired Outcomes Through Channel Conflict Negotiation

Channel relationships are dynamic and complex. Though much of channel literature has dealt with power, dependency, and conflict resolution, relatively little research focuses on how channel members apply different modes of negotiation to resolve channel conflicts and, most important, how they finagle their ways through different stages of negotiation to obtain desirable outcomes. This article suggests that in deciding which strategy to adopt to effectively negotiate with others, channel members should take into account two vital outcomes during the negotiation process: substantive gain and relationship outcome. Integrating high versus low levels for each of these two types of outcomes, this study develops a framework for channel conflict negotiation in an international setting and recommends appropriate negotiation strategies for various scenarios and phases of negotiation.     

Negotiating Effectively: Justice in International Environmental Negotiations

Are negotiators who rely on justice principles in the process of bargaining and drafting agreements more—or rather less—effective than others? This article examines whether adherence to principles of procedural and distributive justice in negotiations contributes to more effective results, with a focus on international environmental negotiations. Effectiveness is defined in terms of the extent of agreement (among parties and on issues), time to reach agreement, and comprehensiveness of the agreement. A set of hypotheses is evaluated on a selection of bilateral and multilateral cases of environmental negotiations, using statistical methods. The analyses reveal that adherence to principles of procedural justice contributes to more effective results in multilateral environmental negotiations. These principles are found to hinder effectiveness in the bilateral cases. On the other hand, adherence to principles of distributive justice is only moderately related to effectiveness in both the bilateral and multilateral cases.     

绿色壁垒问题与中国的应对措施

随着多边贸易谈判的深入 ,传统关税形式的贸易壁垒逐渐消减 ,而另一种比较隐蔽的以环境保护为借口的绿色壁垒正在悄然兴起 ,并有愈演愈烈之势。绿色壁垒依据WTO中的环保条款而存在 ,并对国际贸易产生了巨大的影响 ,从而引起各国的广泛关注。对中国这样一个发展中大国而言 ,绿色壁垒问题具有更加现实的威胁。因此必须积极应对 ,趋利避害 ,推动国内产业实施绿色生产 ,方能化壁垒为通途。     

多边贸易谈判机制的逻辑:一种新贸易理论的解释

按照传统贸易理论的逻辑,在自由贸易最优的世界里,像WTO这样的多边贸易谈判的场所是没有存在的必要,因为各个政府从自身利益出发所做出的决策会自发地导致多边贸易自由化局面的产生。然而现实中的世界并非如此;多边贸易机构不仅存在,而且在国际经济中还发挥着十分重要的作用。目前WTO的存在,促进了自由贸易均衡的实现,而多边贸易协调解决机制保证了各国之间贸易政策博弈中的“冷酷战略”威协的实施,使博弈达到“共赢”的均衡。     

Identifying Macro Phases Across the Negotiation Lifecycle

Existing models of negotiation as a process are incomplete and do not show an overall, start to finish lifecycle. Current phase based models lack clearly defined criteria that identify phase boundaries. After reviewing existing models, the paper identifies macro phases, clarifies phase boundaries, and delivers a bird’s eye view model of negotiation supported by examples in academic literature and the public record. The enhanced model proposed here provides a practical negotiation guideline and roadmap previously left unclear in the literature. The proposed model contributes to theory around negotiation by defining the boundaries of a sequence of macro phases in negotiation and enhancing the model through business process modeling. With the enhanced model, academics and practitioners can share a viewpoint for understanding, communicating, and further developing negotiation models.     

Loss Aversion and Reference-Dependent Preferences in Multi-Attribute Negotiations

Negotiation analysis and game theoretic bargaining models usually assume parties to have exogenous preferences from the beginning of a negotiation on and independent of the history of offers made. On the contrary, this paper argues that preferences might be based on attribute-wise reference points changing during the negotiation process. Aversion against losses relative to the reference point determines negotiators’ decisions in the negotiation and after its termination. The emergence and implications of reference points in a negotiation context are motivated, exemplified, and modeled formally. Furthermore, data from an internet experiment on endogenous preferences in bilateral multi-attribute negotiations is presented. The data supports the behavioral model.     

多边贸易体制互惠原则探析——兼论多边贸易体制对发展中和 “非市场经济 ”成员的差别待遇

互惠是人类合作关系的基石,国际贸易协定将之作为基本原则原因正在于此。在多边贸易体制中,互惠虽未得到明确界定,但却被公认与最惠国共同构成其两个基本原则,互惠是双边谈判的动因和策略,最惠国则是双边谈判成果多边化的实现机制。与最惠国的有条件性和无条件性相对应,互惠有特定和一般之分。由于一般互惠缺乏严格的减让对等和利益平衡,多边贸易体制始终是特定互惠和一般互惠的混合,并在对发达成员、发展中成员和"非市场经济"成员分别强调不同互惠待遇的基础上,形成了一个三层结构。     

The Cultural Dimensions of Negotiation: The Chinese Case

Culture is one of the major components of negotiation and plays an especially crucial role in international relations. The current state of research is presented and discussed. The type of influence of culture is specified and compared with other categories such as strategic behavior and structural determination.Then, referring to the China case, the way culture impacts on the key elements of negotiation such as actors, structures, strategies, process, and outcome is described and analyzed. Lastly, culture's consequences on the negotiator's cognition, beliefs, behaviors and identity are investigated.     

Regional Versus Multilateral Solutions to Transboundary Environmental Problems: Insights from the Southeast Asian Haze

At an analytical level, economists have often categorised the international dimensions of environmental problems and policies as being national (or competitiveness), psychological (as opposed to physical) and transboundary (global) in nature. Focusing on transboundary pollution problems, the reasons why a multilateral approach among sovereign nations to solve such global externalities may be difficult are discussed within a simple analytical framework. The paper examines the Southeast Asian experience at a regional approach to tackling the haze problem due to the Indonesian forest fires. It goes on to explore multilateral policy options and constraints for dealing with such transboundary environmental pollution problems.