Investment under Uncertainty, Debt and Taxes

It is common practice in financial derivative valuation to use a discount factor based on the riskless debt rate. But, to what extent is this discount factor appropriate for cash flows emerging in capital budgeting? To answer this question, we introduce a framework for real asset valuation that considers both personal and corporate taxation. We first discuss broad circumstances under which personal taxes do not affect valuation. We show that the appropriate discount rate for equity‐financed flows in a risk‐neutral setting is an equity rate that differs from the riskless debt rate by a tax wedge due to the presence of personal taxation. We extend this result to the valuation of the interest tax shield for exogenous debt policy with default risk. Interest tax shields, which accrue at a net rate corresponding to the difference between the corporate tax rate and a tax rate related to the personal tax rates, can have either positive or negative values. We also provide an illustrative real options application of our valuation approach to the case of an option to delay investment in a project, showing that the application of Black and Scholes formula may be incorrect in presence of personal taxes.     

管理层收购中企业价值的确定及其评估模型

运用实物期权理论研究管理层收购中企业价值评估的模型和整体思路，提出从交易双方的角度分别对企业的自身价值和投资价值进行评估，两者构成企业的价值区间。管理层收购中企业的自身价值由企业的现实资产价值和期权价值构成，企业的投资价值由企业的自身价值和由于管理层收购的实物期权特征与管理成本节约及战略整合效应而产生的收购增加价值构成。管理层收购的期权价值利用复合实物期权模型计算，管理成本节约及战略整合效应利用改进的折现现金流法计算。最后，提出基于实物期权方法的管理层收购中企业价值评估的整体框架。     

A barrier options approach to modeling project failure: The case of hydrogen fuel infrastructure

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have the potential to contribute to a sustainable transport system with zero tailpipe emissions. This requires the construction of a network of fuel stations, a long-term, expensive and highly uncertain investment. We contribute to the literature by including a knock-out barrier option in an n-fold compound real option model to take account of immediate project failure in a multi-stage sequential investment project. Our model allows to explicitly incorporate the default possibility of large-scale energy infrastructure projects. In our case study of hydrogen infrastructure development, we find that even for the least conservative valuation method no profitable business case can be made for the development of hydrogen as a sustainable transportation mode. However, we do provide some suggestive scenarios that plausible tax schedules can be designed to overcome the starting problems for hydrogen infrastructure development.     

A Tax Paradox for Investment Decisions under Uncertainty

In this paper we use a real option model for assessing uncertain investment projects and we show that—due to a flexibility premium—taxes asymmetrically affect the option value of projects that differ in their riskiness. Hence, this may generate distortions. We analytically identify a set of neutral tax rates (a tax regime) that preserve the post‐tax investment threshold if taxes change, and determine normal and paradoxical settings for investments. Unlike other tax paradoxes neither depreciation rules nor loss offset restrictions cause these paradoxical reactions. Taxes affect each project individually, depending on the project risks involved. This implies that, for a variety of uncertain projects, taxes cannot be neutral on aggregate.     

Progressive taxation and the intensity and timing of investment

This paper examines the effect of progressive taxation on a firm's investment intensity and timing decisions using a real options approach. The firm possesses a perpetual option to invest in a project at any instant by incurring an irreversible investment cost at that time. The amount of the irreversible investment cost determines the intensity of investment that augments the value of the project. Tax progression is specified in a particular case of a constant marginal tax rate with an exogenously given tax exemption threshold that makes the average tax rate increase with the tax base. We show that the firm's investment decisions are neutral to tax progression only when the exogenously given tax exemption threshold is sufficiently large. When tax neutrality does not hold, we show that progressive taxation has a perverse effect on investment intensity. Finally, we show that progressive taxation induces the firm to invest earlier as compared to the case under proportional taxation (i.e., in the absence of any tax exemption).     

Optimal Investment and Financial Strategies under Tax‐Rate Uncertainty

Abstract. In this paper, we apply a real‐option model to study the effects of tax‐rate uncertainty on a firm's decision. In doing so, we depart from the relevant literature, which focuses on fully equity‐financed investment projects. By letting a representative firm borrow optimally, we show that debt finance not only encourages investment activities but can also substantially mitigate the effect of tax‐rate uncertainty on investment timing.     

Decomposition valuation of complex real options embedded in creative financial leases

Creative financial leases offer more managerial flexibility for both the lessor and lessee. The flexibility can be valued as real options, but these options are exotic and complicated, and difficult to solve using traditional approach. We propose a decomposition and diagram method and the complex real options, expressed as a portfolio of vanilla options and simple exotic options. We discuss how the approach can be applied when valuing several typical creative financial leases, including a venture lease, percentage lease, lease with deferred payment, and cancelable lease. These results can be extended to other fields of real world investment. The decomposition and diagram method can help obtain analytic solutions, which facilitate the application of the real option approach and opens up a new method of real option valuation.     

企业高新技术项目投资决策的基本问题分析

企业进行高新技术项目投资非常必要。由于高新技术项目投资具有高收益、高风险的显著特点，因此制定合理的投资策略显得尤为重要。其中高新技术项目价值的评价、高新技术项目的企业的投资规模以及高新技术项目的风险投资的股权比例是高新技术项目投资决策中不容回避的重要的基本问题。从期权理论角度分析认为，高新技术项目价值的评价宜采用实物期权的方法；从效用理论角度分析认为，企业的高新技术项目的投资规模存在着上限值；从博弈理论角度分析认为，企业家应占有高新技术项目的风险投资的股权比例的一半以上。希望这些结论和方法能对企业高新技术项目投资决策的实践起到一定的实用参考价值。     

Real options analysis on strategic partnerships of biotechnological start-ups

Since there is a mismatch between long-term basic research and short-term financial markets, the dependency of biotechnology (biotech) start-ups on strategic partnerships with pharmaceutical companies is expanding more than on venture capital. The research objectives are to examine the difference between license-fee elements, try to determine the innovation valuation in strategic partnerships, and minimise the risk in partnership formation for both sides. A key concept is that a biotech start-up is defined as a portfolio of real options based on an entrepreneur's ideas about investment opportunity. Methodologies used are compound options and stochastic optimisation for innovative but risky projects. In conclusion, this paper tries to address a wider scope with a deeper theoretical grounding, by using the real options perspective for the valuation of innovation partnership, through a biotech license-fee case study for simulation. Furthermore, the real option valuation can be expected to improve open innovation from matchmaking to innovation partnership.     

Valuing investment projects under interest rate risk: empirical evidence from European firms

In this article, we perform an empirical investigation of the effect of the interest rate uncertainty on the valuation of investment projects. The analysis is carried out by employing a real option approach and by considering a set of firms that operate in various production sectors in the euro area. In particular, the revenues generated by the investment projects are modelled using a geometric Brownian motion, whereas the interest rate is specified as a stochastic process of Vasicek type. Moreover, using the volatility of the equity return as a proxy, the volatility of the revenues is calibrated to real firm data, while the parameters of the interest rate model are estimated by fitting the Euribor time series. To this aim, an ad hoc calibration procedure is developed which is based on the maximum likelihood principle and thus has the merit of being simple, fast and suitable for practical purposes. Our study reveals that the interest rate uncertainty reduces the valuation of investment projects. However, stochastic interest rates do not provide a substantial improvement with respect to constant interest rates, or at least the differences are not statistically significant.     

TAXING FOREIGN PROFITS WITH INTERNATIONAL MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS*

A large part of border crossing investment takes the form of international mergers and acquisitions. In this article, we ask how optimal repatriation tax systems look like in a world where investment involves a change of ownership, instead of a reallocation of real capital. We find that the standard results of international taxation do not carry over to the case of international mergers and acquisitions. The deduction system is no longer optimal from a national perspective and the foreign tax credit system fails to ensure global optimality. The tax exemption system is optimal if ownership advantage is a public good within the multinational firm. However, the cross‐border cash‐flow tax system dominates the exemption system in terms of optimality properties.     

Real option value and random jumps: application of a simulation model

This article studies how sensitive real option valuations are to incorrect assumptions about the stochastic process followed by the state variables. We design a valuation model which combines Monte Carlo simulation and dynamic programming and provides an appropriate framework to evaluate the effect of estimation errors on both the value of real options and their critical frontier. Although the model is flexible enough to value American-type options contingent on a wide range of stochastic processes, we focus on the analysis of the effect of stochastic jumps. We apply our model to the valuation of an investment in the car parts industry documented in previous literature. Our results clearly show that underestimating this type of jumps might lead to substantial misjudgements in a firm's decision-making processes. For instance, it may lead to profitable projects being rejected when jump diffusion is low, or negative expanded net present value projects being accepted.     

基于动态模式的实物期权管理研究

组织面临的市场变幻莫测、组织的战略重点发生转移,各种不确定因素对实物期权的影响加重,组织的投资决策就会受到影响。本文通过影响实物期权管理的几种因素进行分析,建立动态的实物期权管理系统,通过各个系统的协同模型,运用灰色系统理论,实现动态的实物期权管理。     

外资企业税收优惠的非效率性

本文中所说的“外资企业” ,是指由非本国常住单位的自然人和法人投资的企业 ,包括由它们独资或与本国企业合资或合作经营的企业 ,也就是人们通常所说的“三资企业”。最近 2 0年来 ,这一类外资企业在我国享受到了不少税收优惠 ,这些税收优惠使适用于这些外资企业的企业所得税和流转税的税率都明显低于本国企业 (许善达 ,1 999)。本文使用数学模型进行的理论分析将说明 ,这样的税收优惠是无效率的 ,其净结果是降低了本国居民所享受的福利。为了能够进行严格的数量化分析 ,我们必须把外资企业税收优惠的影响分成两个不同的方面 :总收入效应和…     

实物期权定价理论及其在中国的适用性分析

实物期权作为西方新兴的价值评估方法在中国拥有广阔的应用前景，但在应用时也应充分注意到这一方法本身的局限性，以及它在中国特殊情况下可能产生的一些问题。本文介绍了两种金融期权定价方法在实物期权中的应用，以及实物期权定价理论在中国的适用性分析。     

Accelerated depreciation and the efficacy of temporary fiscal policy: Implications for an inflationary economy

The effect on investment of temporary tax rate changes depends on the age profile of depreciation deductions. If the depreciation allowance schedule is accelerated, then temporary cuts in the corporate tax rate could reduce investment. Inflation causes the age profile of real depreciation deductions to become accelerated and thus could make temporary tax cuts have a contractionary effect on investment. Two currently proposed reforms are shown to exacerbate this effect. Under each of these proposals, temporary tax cuts are likely to have opposite effects on investment in short-lived and long-lived capital, thereby complicating the conduct of countercyclical fiscal policy.     

Present bias and corporate tax policies

Two major forms of corporate tax policies are dividend and profits taxes. Based on conventional corporate theory, these tax policies distort the firm's investment decisions and decrease firm value. However, this paper shows that under hyperbolically discounted preferences, dividend taxation is capable of boosting firm investment in a value‐enhancing way. The hyperbolically discounted present value can be interpreted as reflecting irrational myopic preferences or, as we demonstrate, reduced‐form implications of corporate agency issues. Both cases result in an underinvestment problem for the firm, but the firm valuation criteria differ. The optimal taxation issue is discussed under a Cobb–Douglas production function setting.     

货币政策、民营企业投资效率与公司期权价值

本文首先考察了货币政策对民营企业融资约束和投资效率的影响。研究发现,宽松的货币政策减少了民营企业的融资约束,但对投资效率的影响则呈现非线性关系。本文进一步从实物期权的角度考察了货币政策对公司增长与清算期权价值的影响,结果表明:高盈利能力公司的增长期权价值在宽松货币政策时期更大,而低盈利能力公司的清算期权价值在紧缩货币政策时期更高。本文的研究结论有助于理解在不同的货币政策状态下,资本逐利这一经济规律的表现形式;同时,本文的经验证据还有助于从投资效率和公司价值的角度评价宏观经济政策对微观经济实体的影响,从而为决策部门制定恰当的经济政策、促进宏观经济体系的良好运转提供政策性建议。     

Rental housing for a French taxpayer: are there tax arbitrage opportunities in the USA?

The aim of this paper is to identify tax arbitrage opportunities in the field of rental housing in France and the USA. We conducted tax simulations for investments made in the USA or France. We compared total net rental incomes, capital gains and present investment values based on different tax regimes. Our results show that rental housing in the USA under the Effectively Connected Income classification serves as the best option, as it generates the highest present investment value. We performed several robustness exercises and we showed that our results are strengthened in cases of stronger price appreciation in the USA than in France and in cases of high landlord tax brackets.     

房地产投资决策中实物期权方法的应用

传统的净现值投资决策方法将不确定性视为一种损失,忽略了项目投资的灵活性和战略性,往往造成项目价值的低估,而实物期权弥补了NPV法的不足。本文将实物期权方法}J入房地产投资决策中,对比分析了传统净现值法的一些不足,介绍了实物期权的基本理论,并采用了B-S期权定价模型对房地产投资决策过程中蕴含的迟延期权进行了案例分析。