Response to cash outs for work place parking and work place parking charges

Free work place parking has long been considered to have a strong influence on whether or not individuals use their car for their trips to work. A survey of local authority employees was conducted to examine their potential responses to the removal of free work place parking spaces, how they would respond to parking cash-out policies and to work place parking charges, and finally their responses to specific values of cash out payments. It was found that as age increases individuals are less likely to accept any form of cash out. When individuals have one or more cars available they are more likely to opt for a cash out scheme. Females are more likely to opt for the various cash out schemes than males. The results seem to suggest that if an individual has a higher income it does not necessarily mean they will opt to keep their space.     

Overcoming barriers to the implementation of car parking charges at UK workplaces

Charging employees to park at their places of work is a transport policy measure advocated by the UK government as a means of reducing car commuting and hence achieving the twin objectives of reducing congestion and combating environmental degradation, especially in urban areas. The empirical effects of employee parking charges have been analysed (see for example [Willson, R.W., Shoup, D.C., 1990. Parking subsidies and travel choices: assessing the evidence. Transportation 17, 141–157; Department for Transport (DfT), 2002. Making travel plans work: report on case studies. London: DfT (Also available at www.local-transport.dft.gov.uk/travelplans/guides/index.htm)]). There is, however, a dearth of literature examining the practicalities of employee car parking charge implementation in those few organisations that haves done so. Based on empirical studies of 11 UK workplaces, this paper examines the reasons for and the practicalities of implementation and concludes by considering the barriers to the wider adoption of this policy.     

Determinants of extreme commuting. Evidence from Brussels,Geneva and Lyon

Daily travel time has increased in Europe during the last decade. Some commuters show unusual commuting behaviours, so-called extreme commuting, which is defined as spending more than 100 min commuting a day. This paper aims to explain these commuting patterns from the point of view of the extreme commuters themselves. Based on a qualitative survey conducted in three European regions - Lyon, Brussels and Geneva - among individuals that spend at least two hours a day commuting, this study shows that extreme commuting is determined by complex interplay between the individual's working and private life and issues related to travel. Among our sample, the choice of public transportation modes assisted long-duration commuting. Our results also highlight the paradox that rapid transportation networks are used intensively to allow people to remain rooted — both residentially and socially.     

Is the built-environment at origin,on route,and at destination associated with bicycle commuting? A gender-informed approach

There is limited evidence on the gender differences and location-specific built-environment factors associated with bicycling in Latin American cities. This study aimed to assess commuting in Bogotá by (1) analyzing the gender-specific trend of the standardized number of bicycle commuters during 2005–2017; and (2) assessing the socio-demographic, community, built-environment and natural factors associated with bicycle commuting stratified by gender. This secondary-data analysis included data from the Household Travel Surveys and Multipurpose Surveys to calculate the number of bicycle commuters per habitant from 2005 to 2017 by gender. We assessed the socio-demographic and built-environment factors fitting generalized additive models stratified by gender using the 2015 Household Travel Survey. Although both women and men increased the standardized number of bicycle commuters, male commuters show a steeper trend than women, evidencing the widening gender gap in bicycle commuting over time. Bicycle commuting was negatively associated with household motor vehicle ownership, steeper terrain slope, longer commute distance, and scarce low-stress roads at trip origin and route. Among women, the availability of bike paths at the trip destination was positively associated with bicycling, while age and being a student were negatively associated with bicycling. Among men, living in areas with the lowest socio-economic status was positively associated with bicycling, while having a driver's license and living close to bus rapid transit stations were negatively associated with bicycling. In conclusion, bicycle and transport infrastructure play different roles in commuting by bicycle by gender and trip stages (origin – route – destination).     

Car parking management at airports: A special case?

The number of employees who daily commute to an airport represents, on average, one quarter to one half of the daily number of passengers. At UK airports it is rare for employees to pay for their car parking, with most employers absorbing the charges imposed by the airport authority. This paper details the main issues with offering free parking to employees drawing comparisons between a selection of case studies where parking management measures for employees have been introduced, and the airport sector. The paper then reports on a survey and a series of focus groups that were conducted with employees at a large UK airport in order to gauge their attitudes and likely behavioural responses to potential parking management strategies. Key findings are presented to show how airports may be able to learn from the experiences of others in the successful introduction of parking management strategies, but that there are also key barriers that are specific to airports that would need to be overcome.     

Commuting and self-employment in Western Europe

This paper explores the commuting behavior of workers in Western Europe, with a focus on the differences in commuting time between employees and the self-employed. Using data from the last wave of the European Working Conditions Survey (2015), we analyze the commuting behavior of workers, finding that male and female self-employed workers devote 18.6 and 24.7 fewer minutes per day to commuting than their employee counterparts, respectively. Furthermore, differences in commuting time between employee and self-employed females depend on the degree of urbanization of the worker's residential location, as the difference in commuting time between the two groups of female workers is greater in rural areas, in comparison to workers living in urban areas. By analyzing differences in commuting time between groups of European workers, our analysis may serve to guide future planning programs.     

Commute minimization in the Greater Toronto Area: applying a modified excess commute

Following the excess commuting literature, we develop a benchmark measure of the minimum required commute, conditional on the layout of the specific urban area. Through segmentation of the commuters into those that can be relocated and those that cannot, we try to explain the difference between the minimum required and actual commute. To determine the segmentation of the commuters we make use of a micro-level explanatory model of commuting distance. This micro-level modeling exercise informs a number of excess commuting simulations that address the contribution of certain groups of commuters to total commuting. Findings from the micro-analysis reaffirm similar findings in the literature for other urban areas. The simulation exercise suggests that varied levels of commute savings may result from policy directed at particular commuter groups.     

Powered-two-wheelers for city commuting: Insight from Australia's three largest capital cities

The journey to work receives a great deal of research attention due to the peak demand on the transport system. Cities are increasingly concerned with managing traffic congestion and reducing pollution and most of the focus of this research has been on cars, public transport, walking and cycling. In contrast, the role of powered two-wheelers (PTWs), including motorcycles and scooters, in commuting has received little attention, particularly in the context of cities in the developed world. This paper provides new insight into commuting by PTW by drawing on census journey to work data from Australia's three largest cities (Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane) combined with an intercept survey of PTW commuters in Melbourne. It explores the extent of, and changes in, PTW commuting as well as the demographics of PTW commuters. While PTWs account for only a small percentage of urban commuting in Australian cities, their use is growing rapidly and there is a concentration of commuting by PTW into city centres. PTW commuters tend to be high-income males in skilled professional and technical professions. The implication of these findings for transport policy are discussed.     

Making public transport financially sustainable

Over the past two decades, Germany has improved the quality of its public transport services and attracted more passengers while increasing productivity, reducing costs, and cutting subsidies. Public transport systems reduced their costs through organizational restructuring and outsourcing to newly founded subsidiaries; cutting employee benefits and freezing salaries; increasing work hours, using part-time employees, expanding job tasks, and encouraging retirement of older employees; cooperation with other agencies to share employees, vehicles, and facilities; cutting underutilized routes and services; and buying new vehicles with lower maintenance costs and greater passenger capacity per driver. Revenues were increased through fare hikes for single tickets while maintaining deep discounts for monthly, semester, and annual tickets; and raising passenger volumes by improved quality of service, and full regional coordination of timetables, fares, and services. Those efforts by public transport agencies were enhanced by the increasing costs and restrictions on car use in German cities. Although the financial performance of German public transport has greatly improved, there are concerns of inequitable burdens on labor, since many of the cost reduction measures involved reducing wages or benefits of workers.     

Modeling commuter modal shift from car trips to cycling: Scenario construction and outcomes for Stockholm,Sweden

This article presents the construction and outcomes of scenarios modeling commuter modal shift from car trips to cycling in the metropolitan region of Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. Building and improving upon previous studies in terms of both methodological approach and degree of spatial resolution of the modeling output, we examine scenarios where car commuters able to reach their workplace within 30 and 50 minutes of cycling shift commuting mode. Overall, car–bicycle modal shift figures were 31.6% and 48.7%, respectively. However, there were considerable geographical differences. While a substantial number of new bicycle commuters appeared in all five macro-level subdivisions of the study area, relative modal shift was by far the highest among car commuters living in the Inner City and its immediate surroundings.     

Optimizing EV-based P&R subsidy policies for commuting corridor based on cross-nested logit model

The promotion of electric vehicles (EVs) is restricted by cruising range limitation and charging station deficiency. Given the mature development of Park and Ride (P&R) mode, which is used in many cities worldwide to attract more travelers to use public transit, a new travel mode, i.e., EV-based P&R is introduced as an alternative for commuters’ daily travel. This seems quite attractive to expand the use of EVs and further increase their market share. This paper aims to investigate the impact of EV-based P&R introduction on travel mode choice along commuting corridor, and further aid in the optimal subsidy policies decision for the government. A bi-level model is proposed to model the presented problem. The lower level describes commuters’ joint mode and transfer choice behavior through a cross-nested logit (CNL) model, while the upper level minimizes the system cost. A genetic algorithm is developed to solve the formulated model with a partial linearization algorithm for solving the lower level model. And a numerical example is then used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the methodology and illustrate how the network flow pattern reshapes due to the introduction of EVs into the P&R mode and the change of corresponding subsidy policies. As the results show, improving the EV hardware, applying the intelligent supporting service system, developing new technologies for EV fast charging, appropriately improving the parking space capacity, and increasing the parking fee of transfer stations near the central business district (CBD) are all helpful to save the social cost and promote the usage of EVs.     

Green commuter plans and the small employer: an investigation into the attitudes and policy of the small employer towards staff travel and green commuter plans

One potential solution to reducing peak hour congestion has been to identify a role for the employer in reducing car-based travel to work and promoting more sustainable alternatives through comprehensive ‘employee travel plans’ (Rye, T., 1995. Employee Transport Plans—An Easy Means to Cut Congestion? The 23rd European Transport Forum, Proceedings of Seminar B, Planning for Sustainability, PTRC, pp. 229–241). In the UK such plans have seen a steady increase in interest since the early 1990s culminating in their recognition in the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions DETR, 1998 (DETR, 1998. A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone, The Government's White Paper on the Future of Transport, HMSO, London) Transport White Paper as a policy tool for reducing car-based travel. Despite their inclusion as a policy tool little information exists on the views of employers towards such plans (Rye, T., 1995. Employee Transport Plans—An Easy Means to Cut Congestion? The 23rd European Transport Forum, Proceedings of Seminar B, Planning for Sustainability, PTRC, pp. 229–241; Rye, T., MacLeod, M., 1998. An Investigation of Employer Attitudes to Employer Transport Plans, AET European Transport Conference 1998, Policy Planning and Sustainability Seminar (Seminar C), vol. 2, PTRC). This is of considerable concern given that employers by default are the key implementers. Studies to date on employers’ attitudes have concentrated on the views of the large employer (over 100 employees). The Transport White Paper however suggests that there is also a role for the small employer. This paper therefore investigates the attitudes and policy of the small employer (under 100 employees) towards staff travel and green commuter plans. The paper is based on the analysis of data collected in 1998 from 352 small Oxfordshire employers. The research was funded under the DETR's Seedcorn Research Programme. The paper outlines selected findings of this research, and concludes by suggesting that while ultimately there should be a role for the small employer in developing green commuter plans it is the large firms that are more likely to implement green commuter plans in the short term. In policy terms, the continuing focus of green commuter plans on large employers is therefore the best way forward. In the long term however consideration needs to be given to the role that the small employer can play in reducing employee travel.     

Commuting patterns of employees in the Information Technology and traditional manufacturing sectors of Bangalore, India

Rapid growth of the Information Technology (IT) sector in Bangalore, India, has transformed the city’s urban-industrial landscape since the liberalization of India's economy in 1991. The city's IT sector is closely integrated with a global system of production and caters largely to a global clientele. Apart from the impact of these developments on urban form, there are indications that they are causing uneven growth patterns and socio-economic polarization, which has resulted in different travel patterns in the work force. This paper compares the commuting patterns of employees in two types of firms, an IT multinational corporation and a traditional public-sector-unit (PSU), using data from a survey. Regression models show that there is a significant increase in travel cost as income rises for a sample of employees of the IT sector, even though travel distance is not influenced by income. The reverse holds true for a sample of employees of the PSU—rising income significantly increases distance though income does not affect travel cost. Behavioral choice models also show that with increasing income IT employees are more likely to choose two-wheelers and cars for commuting while PSU employees are more likely to choose public buses or walk to work. The paper suggests that Bangalore's services-oriented IT economy is magnifying differences in work commuting patterns relative to those in the traditional manufacturing economy. The IT economy is also transforming travel behavior in terms of work travel mode choices among socio-economic groups.     

Changing trip behavior in a higher education institution: The role of parking fees

Higher education institutions are major trip-generating locations and the transportation to and from them has negative environmental influences. To discourage car owners from solo driving and encourage them to use more environmentally friendly travel modes, it is important to understand what factors influence their travel mode choice. Using a discrete choice model, we examined the motivations to leave the car at home, with and without parking fee. Besides parking fees, we examined the effects of other variables known to predict commuting choice, such as time and social discomfort, pro-environmental attitudes, reduced vehicle maintenance expenses and awareness of alternative commuting options. Results show that adding a parking fee not only increased the tendency to leave the car at home, it also influenced the relative weight given to the considerations that determine to leave the car at home. Specifically, after the introduction of a parking fee, the previously significant impacts of pro-environmental attitudes and social discomfort on leaving the car at home became non-significant, and the impacts of other, more instrumental factors (e.g., time discomfort, costs related to car ownership and maintenance, time wasted searching for a parking space and in traffic jams) which were insignificant beforehand, became the significant predictors. Parking fees were found to be effective and can change to accommodate different policies (revenue collection, pollution reduction, and students’ discomfort). The implications of such a study are the trade-off between monetary (parking fee) and non-monetary variables to accommodate more sustainable traffic management.     

How large are tax subsidies to motor-vehicle users in the US?

There has been considerable discussion about the extent to which motor-vehicle use in the US is “subsidized,” making petroleum-based motor vehicle use more attractive than other transportation modes. Estimates of these subsidies vary widely, and in many cases can be criticized on methodological grounds. In this paper we estimate corporate-income-tax, sales-tax, property-tax, and personal-income-tax subsidies related to motor-vehicle use. Whereas previous estimates of sales-tax and corporate-income-tax subsidies have been built piecemeal, tax provision by tax provision, we offer an alternative method, based on the difference between actual tax payments of the motor vehicle industry compared to other industries. We estimate that the total “tax subsidy” to motor-vehicle users in the US may be in the range of $19–64 billion (10⁹) per year, or $0.11–0.37 per gallon ($0.03–0.10 per liter) of motor fuel. However, the amount of the subsidy, and hence the magnitude of its effect, depends greatly on the tax baseline with respect to which the subsidy is estimated. (The property-tax subsidy is particularly uncertain.) We emphasize that without doing a full equilibrium analysis, we cannot say how eliminating these subsidies would affect social welfare.     

The jobs–housing relationship and commuting in Beijing,China: the legacy of Danwei

China’s market-oriented reform has not only revitalized the economy but also changed the physical structure of Chinese cities, which used to be largely determined by the socialist Danwei (or work unit) system. In order to understand the impacts of the reform and the influence of Danwei on jobs–housing relationships and commuting behavior, this study investigates whether there are differences in commuting behavior between individuals who live in houses provided by Danwei and those who reside in houses from private market sources in urban China. We apply the structural equations model to investigate the interactions between housing source (from Danwei or not), jobs–housing relationship, transport mode and commuting time in Beijing, the capital city of China. The results show that Danwei housing commuters have shorter commuting trips and higher usage of non-motorized transport mode than those who live in houses from the market sources. This finding implies that the diminishing influence of the traditional Danwei system and the market-oriented reform in urban development may have changed the jobs–housing balance and increased travel demand in Chinese cities.     

Accessibility and the journey to work through the lens of equity

Inequality in transport provision is an area of growing concern among transport professionals, as it results in low-income individuals travelling at lower speeds while covering smaller distances. Accessibility, the ease of reaching destinations, may hold the key in correcting these inequalities through providing a means to evaluate land use and transport interventions. This article examines the relationship between accessibility and commute duration for low-income individuals compared to the higher-income, in three major Canadian metropolitan regions, Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver using separate multilevel mixed effects statistical models for car and public transport commuters. Accessibility measures are generated for jobs and workers both at the origin (home) and the destination (place of work) to account for the impact of competing labor and firms. Our models show that the impacts of accessibility on commute duration are present and in many cases stronger for low-income individuals than for higher income groups. The results suggest that low-income individuals have more to gain (in terms of reduced commute time) from increased accessibility to low-income jobs at the origin and to workers at the destination. Similarly, they also have more to lose from increased accessibility to low-income workers at the origin and to low-income jobs at the destination, which are proxies for increased competition. Policies targeting improvements in accessibility to jobs, especially low-income ones, by car and public transport while managing the presence of competition can serve to bridge the inequality gap that exists in commuting behavior.     

Active commuting in a university setting: Assessing commuting habits and potential for modal change

This paper describes the results of an online survey that examined commuting patterns, potential for change and barriers and motivators affecting transport decisions in a University population (n=1040 students, n=1170 staff). Overall, 21.5% of staff and 46.8% of students at The University of Western Australia regularly used active modes, and potentially an additional 30% of staff and students would switch to active modes. The results suggested that reducing barriers to using active modes, in particular reducing actual and perceived travel time by bus and bicycle would have the greatest impact on commuting patterns. Some policy applications appeared to hold particular promise, including an implementation of a subsidised public transport pass (U-Pass), increased student housing on or near campus, increased cost of parking, and improved bus services and cycle networks.