Ethical decision–making in business: focus on Mauritius

This paper explores management attitudes towards ethical issues in an attempt to shed some light on the determinants of ethical issue intensity in the context of business. A sample of business executives in Mauritius was surveyed in order to establish their ethical perceptions when exposed to potentially questionable business practices. The findings demonstrated the significant influence of factors associated with moral deliberations on strategies for ethical decision–making as compared with the impact of company policy and legal requirements. Participants revealed that, irrespective of codes of conduct, personal ethics predominate when it comes to making ethical choices. Some view the behaviour of management as a key determinant of ethical conduct. This trend differs from predictions in the literature. To date, research conducted in the developed world shows that employee perception of ethics of their superiors is a stronger predictor of behaviour than employees' personal ethical beliefs. This article focuses on Mauritius as an emerging economy, and looks at potential strategies for ethical decision–making, where business people do not necessarily operate under a specific code of conduct.     

Ethical decision making: A review of the empirical literature

The authors review the empirical literature in order to assess which variables are postulated as influencing ethical beliefs and decision making. The variables are divided into those unique to the individual decision maker and those considered situational in nature. Variables related to an individual decision maker examined in this review are nationality, religion, sex, age, education, employment, and personality. Situation specific variables examined in this review are referent groups, rewards and sanctions, codes of conduct, type of ethical conflict, organization effects, industry, and business competitiveness. The review identifies the variables that have been empirically tested in an effort to uncover what is known and what we need to know about the variables that are hypothesized as determinants of ethical decision behavior.Robert C. Ford is a professor of management at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. He has authored or coauthored two texts and a number of published articles in a variety of journals including theAcademy of Management Journal, Journal of Management, Journal of Applied Psychology, California Management Review, andBusiness Horizons. He is the incoming President of the Southern Management Association and has served the Academy of Management as Chairs of the Management History Division, the Management Education and Development Division, and Placement Director.Woodrow D. Richardson is an assistant professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. He has published inHealth Care Management Review, Simulation & Gaming, andSmall Business Controlling. He teaches courses in Business & Society and Business Policy, and he was the recipient of the University Excellence in Teaching Award in 1989.     

Ethical decision making: An investigation of services marketing professionals

This study investigates the relative influences of professional values and selected demographic variables on the ethical perceptions of services marketing professionals. The relationship between ethical perceptions and ethical judgments of service marketers is also examined. The data were obtained from a mail survey of the American Marketing Association's professional members of service industries. The survey results indicate a positive relationship between a service professional's professional values and his/her perceptions of ethical problems. The results also suggest that ethical judgments of a service professional can be partially explained by his/her perceptions of ethical problems. Implications of the research findings were discussed. Anusorn Singhapakdi is Associate Professor of Marketing at Old Dominion University. His research has been primarily in the areas of marketing/business ethics. He published in various journals such as Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Macromarketing, Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, and Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. He has presented papers at various professional conferences including the American Marketing Association and the Academy of Marketing Science.C. P. Rao is Eminent Scholar and William B. Spong Chair in Marketing and International Business at Old Dominion University. He has also served on the Marketing faculty at the University of Arkansas and at the Indian Institute of management. He participated in the ICAME program at Stanford University. Dr. Rao was awarded the C.P.M. (Certified Purchasing Manager) by the National Association of Purchasing Manager. Dr. Rao is a frequent contributor to many leading journals and has received the Distinguished Faculty Research Award in the College of Business Administration at the University of Arkansas three times. Scott J. Vitell is Associate Professor and Phil B. Hardin Chair of Marketing at the University of Mississippi. His work has appeared in the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Macromarketing, Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, and Research in Marketing as well as various other journals and proceedings.     

Ethical consumer decision‐making: The role of need for cognition and affective responses

Most of the academic research in the field of consumer ethics has focused on the cognitive antecedents and processes of unethical consumer behavior. However, the specific roles of discrete emotions such as fear have not yet been investigated thoroughly. This research examines the role of the need for cognition (NFC), the three affective responses—fear, power, and excitement—and perceived issue importance on moral intensity, ethical perceptions, and ethical intentions for four types of unethical consumer behaviors. A sample of consumers from the two cities of Alexandria and Cairo, Egypt (n = 346) participated in the survey. Most research hypotheses were supported. NFC, issue importance, and affect variables were all predictors of moral intensity, ethical perceptions, and ethical intentions in four different consumer ethics scenarios. The specific predictors varied from one consumer ethics scenario to another, however.     

Ethical decision‐making in Islamic financial institutions in light of Maqasid Al‐Sharia: A conceptual framework

This article develops a conceptual framework for ethical decision‐making in Islamic financial institution based on the Islamic methodological approaches on ethics. While making use of the similarities between the scientific method and the Islamic jurisprudence method, a framework is developed by means of argumentation and reasoning to integrate Sharia doctrines with the “plan, do, check and act” (PDCA) cycle as a managerial tool. Using Al‐Raysuni's analysis of Al‐Shatibi's work on maqasid al‐sharia, this article develops a framework to assess the ethical aspects of Islamic financial operations, which is then applied to hypothetical cases. This approach can help overcome the methodological deficiencies in measuring ethical performance in Islamic finance by focusing on the process of ethical decision‐making that leads to the outcomes of organizational behavior beyond legality of contracts. The framework outlines the conditions under which an activity that is considered legal and permissible contractually could lead to outcomes that can make it ethical or unethical.     

Understanding consumers’ perception of clothing quality: a multidimensional approach

The purpose of this study was to explore how consumers evaluate clothing quality. The researchers used a questionnaire based on responses from previous clothing quality research. It included statements to assess consumers’ use of informational cues to evaluate clothing quality and their expectations of high‐quality garments. A total of 146 students completed the questionnaire. An analysis of the data indicated that 75% of the informational cues and 36% of the expectations of a high‐quality garment were used by the respondents when considering the quality of a garment. The results of this study support the multidimensional nature of consumers’ perception of clothing quality using both informational cues and consumers’ expectations of high‐quality garments.     

Ethical decision making in the medical profession: An application of the theory of planned behavior

The present study applied Ajzen's (1985) theory of planned behavior to the explanation of ethical decision making. Nurses in three hospitals were provided with scenarios that depicted inadequate patient care and asked if they would report health professionals responsible for the situation. Study results suggest that the theory of planned behavior can explain a significant amount of variation in the intent to report a colleague. Attitude toward performing the behavior explained a large portion of the variance; subjective norms explained a moderate amount of the variance; and, perceived behavioral control added little to the explanation of variance. Implications for research and practice are discussed. Donna M. Randall is an Associate Professor in Management and Systems at Washington State University. Her research interests include organizational commitment, media coverage of elite crime, and ethical issues in management. Her publications have appeared in such journals as Decision Sciences, Academy of Management Review, and Journal of Business Ethics. Annetta M. Gibson is a doctoral student in the Department of Accounting and Business Law at Washington State University and a CPA. Her research interests lie in the area of behavioral accounting and ethical issues in auditing, accounting, and management. She has published in the Journal of Business Ethics.     

Ethical consumerism: a view from Finland

Business ethics and corporate social responsibility have gained more attention in recent years. However, the consumers’ perspective on ethics is still a little researched area. This study reports a survey (n = 713) on the views of Finnish consumers about ethics in trade. Consumers’ willingness to promote business ethics as well as the obstacles to ethical consumption are investigated. The results of the study show that while the majority of the respondents regard business ethics as important, this attitude does not translate into their choice behaviour. Consumers are uncertain about which products and firms follow ethical rules and which do not. The most important obstacles to ethical consumption were difficulties in obtaining information, problems in product availability and high prices of ethical products.     

25 years of Psychology & Marketing: a multidimensional review

The first issue of Psychology & Marketing was published in 1984. The journal was conceived as a forum for academics and practitioners in psychology, marketing, and related fields to engage in an exchange of scholarly information. The raison d'être of the journal was to bring psychologically sophisticated information and methodologies to bear on all aspects of marketing theory and practice. This review analyzes the performance of Psychology & Marketing from several perspectives, and includes data comparing its performance to the performance of other journals. Looking back over the last 25 years of its history, it seems fair to conclude that Psychology & Marketing has clearly delivered on its tacit promise of effectively building the knowledge base of marketing through psychology‐based insights. Looking forward, it seems reasonable to anticipate that the journal's well‐established track record in terms of diversity in the content, research design, and methodologies of its published articles will continue to stand as a welcome and refreshing distinction from other journals covering comparable domains of study. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Positive Ethical Organization: Enacting a Living Code of Ethics and Ethical Organizational Identity

A vision of a living code of ethics is proposed to counter the emphasis on negative phenomena in the study of organizational ethics. The living code results from the harmonious interaction of authentic leadership, five key organizational processes (attraction–selection–attrition, socialization, reward systems, decision-making and organizational learning), and an ethical organizational culture (characterized by heightened levels of ethical awareness and a positive climate regarding ethics). The living code is the cognitive, affective, and behavioral manifestation of an ethical organizational identity. We draw on business ethics literature, positive organizational scholarship, and management literature to outline the elements of positive ethical organizations as those exemplary organizations consistently practicing the highest levels of organizational ethics. In a positive ethical organization, the right thing to do is the only thing to do. Amy Klemm Verbos is a Ph.D. candidate at the Sheldon B. Lubar School of Business, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, where she received a Chancellor’s Fellowship, Graduate Fellowship, Dissertation Fellowship, and C. Edward Weber Research Award. She co-authored ‚Positive Relationships in Action: Relational Mentoring and Mentoring Schemas in the Workplace’ in the forthcoming edited book, Positive Relationships at Work. Her work on positive organizing also has been presented at the Academy of Management Conference. Joseph A. Gerard is a Ph.D. student at the Sheldon B. Lubar School of Business at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. He is a lecturer at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater teaching organizational behavior, strategy, and accounting. He is a founding member of Ascent Organization Development LLC, which provides management consulting services to for-profit organizations in the areas of effectiveness and performance enhancement. Paul R. Forshey is a Ph.D. student in Organizations and Strategic Management at the Sheldon B. Lubar School of Business, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. His research interests include startup firms and firms in transition. Charles S. Harding is a Ph.D. student in Organizations and Strategic Management at the Sheldon B. Lubar School of Business at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Awarded a Chancellor’s Fellowship, his research interests include strategic decision-making and the role of value creation in strategy. Janice S. Miller is an Associate Professor at the Sheldon B. Lubar School of Business at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee where she has received the Business Advisory Council Award for Teaching Excellence. Her published work has appeared in Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Journal of Business Ethics among others. She received her Ph.D. in Human Resources Management from Arizona State University.     

Reasons To Be Ethical: Self-Interest and Ethical Business

This paper examines the self-interested reasons that businesses can have for ethical behaviour. It distinguishes between economic and non-economic reasons and, among the latter, notes those connected with the self-esteem of managers. It offers a detailed typology of prudential reasons for ethical behaviour, laying particular stress on those to do with avoiding punishment by society for wrongdoing and, more particularly still, stresses the role of campaigning pressure groups within that particular category of reasons. It goes on to suggest that because of their occupation of the moral high ground, campaigning groups are well placed to damage the self-esteem of managers and that this is why those groups seem able to exert an influence that goes beyond their somewhat limited capacity to inflict economic damage upon businesses. The paper concludes with the suggestion that we may be witnessing a virtuous spiral whereby rising public expectations of morality in business lead to ever increasing moral commitments by business that then cause those expectations to rise still further.     

Media preferences among young consumers in Bangladesh: a multidimensional approach

Generally, preference toward an advertising media is judged by company-driven effectiveness assessment parameters such as reach, frequency, sales and return on investment. This paper, on the other hand, by using structural equation modeling offers a three-dimensional 20-item ‘media effectiveness assessment model’ based on the quantitative judgment of young consumers. After that the preferences of male and female consumers toward seven different media with respect to the assessment criteria of the model have been captured and compared. Item-wise results of the study show that radio received highest priority by male consumers, whereas, TV and newspaper are the second priority. Female respondents on the other hand put highest preference toward magazine followed by radio. Popularity of radio among young consumers is noticeable. Dimension-wise comparisons revealed that men and women consumers preferred radio and billboard, respectively as the best media for ‘customization’ ability. However, for advertisement ‘positioning’ men and women prioritized TV and magazine, respectively. Finally, billboard and radio were found to be most ‘interactive’ as opined by male and female, respectively. The methodology of this study is based on 783 samples collected from the young executives (both male and female) of Bangladesh during September–November, 2014.     

Ethical leadership in Chinese organizations: Developing a scale

In light of a series of ethical scandals in China in recent years, this research aims to develop a reliable and valid scale to measure ethical leadership, namely the “ethical leadership measure (ELM).” Our results show that ELM is strongly and positively correlated with scales for authentic leadership, ethical leadership, idealized influence, and a recently-developed leadership virtues questionnaire (LVQ); and negatively correlated with laissez-faire leadership and passive management by exception. ELM is also found to be positively related to followers’ job satisfaction, affective commitment, trust in leader, organizational citizenship behavior, and moral identity, and negatively related to followers’ intention to quit.     

The valuation of American options in a multidimensional exponential Lévy model

We consider the problem of valuation of American options written on dividend‐paying assets whose price dynamics follow a multidimensional exponential Lévy model. We carefully examine the relation between the option prices, related partial integro‐differential variational inequalities, and reflected backward stochastic differential equations. In particular, we prove regularity results for the value function and obtain the early exercise premium formula for a broad class of payoff functions.     

Teaching Ethical Decision Making: Adding a Structuration Dimension

This paper proposes that structuration theory provides a useful framework for analyzing ethical dilemmas. Traditional deontological and teleological approaches to case analysis focus on identification and resolution of ethical dilemmas through a prioritization of rights and/or consequences. These approaches can be complemented by structuration theory, which provides a framework for understanding how structural forces of meaning, power, and social norms influence, and are influenced by, the actions of individuals. We develop an approach for using structuration theory to analyze an ethical dilemma, and present handouts that can be used by students to apply this approach. We demonstrate the approach by applying it to a standard ethical dilemma. We believe that a structuration perspective can contribute to flstudents' understanding of ethical dilemmas by highlighting the dynamic and evolving nature of ethics, and their own roles in creating work and professional environments that promote ethical behavior.     

如何构建和谐劳资关系

本文对我国劳资关系的现状及成因进行分析,并提出了相应的解决对策.     

On building better construct measures: Implications of a general hierarchical model

Four problems occur in the scale development process: (a) defining the construct, (b) drawing items from multiple domains, (c) identifying dimensions, and (d) showing nomological validity. In order to minimize these problems, the authors propose a general hierarchical model (GHM) that provides an organizational structure for placing many of the individual difference constructs used in marketing and consumer behavior. Three principles, which were derived from the GHM, add to the current scale development paradigm: (a) Define and test the construct within a hierarchical network that includes antecedents and consequences, (b) define and test the construct's dimensionality, and (c) match the construct's items to its level in the hierarchical system. By using these steps in scale development, researchers can build more precise measures possessing higher levels of validity and reliability. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Determinants of the corporate identity construct: a review of the literature

Corporate identity has received significant attention from both academics and practitioners in the last 25 years. Despite many articles written in this area a definitive construct of corporate identity and its measurements does not yet exist. The objective of this paper is therefore to provide a review of the literature on the corporate identity construct and its components and also to present the academic and managerial implications of this study.     

Correlates of organizational effectiveness: A multilevel analysis of a multidimensional outcome

This paper explores the relationship between environmental scarcity, organization size, and board composition with measures of financial and social performance. All three correlates were found to be related to both measures of performance and the hypotheses were largely supported. Anomalous relationships, however, were found between organizational size and social performance as well as outsider representation and financial performance. This study demonstrates that normative explorations focusing only on financial performance can lead to misleading conclusions about organizational effectiveness.William Q. Judge is currently an assistant professor of strategic management at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. He is continuing his research in the areas of organizational effectiveness, stakeholder management, and corporate governance.     

The ethical leader: An ascetic construct

The way in which ethical standards are neglected or applied is a function of individual character. The best guarantee of ethical leadership, therefore, lies in the identification of those already predisposed to live according to high moral standards. The ascetic construct is offered as a type of personality with such a predisposition. The ascetic is self-controlled, purposeful, and mindful with regard to consequences. The character traits of the ascetic leader are predicted to increase ethical awareness and ethical accountability within his organization or hers. This will increase the probability of the organization's economic success because it will reduce uncertainty on the part of customers and investors. A better understanding of the ascetic personality may be helpful in identifying those with the potential for becoming highly ethical leaders.Harold Jones is a graduate of the University of Nebraska at Omaha and Garrett Theological Seminary. After eight years in the ministry, he worked for twelve years as a stockbroker and as a branch office manager for an affiliate of a New York Stock Exchange member firm. In 1992, he retired from business to begin working on his Ph.D.