Magnitude of ecotourism in Costa Rica and Kenya

An examination of ecotourism patterns within Costa Rica and Kenya reveals differential magnitudes across an array of relevant criteria. If measured in terms of specialized accommodations, visits by specialist ecotourists, direct social and economic impact, activity space, or government investment, ecotourism is a relatively minor activity. More congruent with the popular image of these two countries as high profile ecotourism destinations are total tourist activity time, ecotourism as a visitor motivation, and indirect revenue generation, all of which are substantial or major. It is argued that this touristic form of development and practice exists in a symbiotic relationship with mass tourism, and the more intensive types should be considered as a type of the latter.     

Indicators of Sustainable Tourism in New Zealand: A Local Government Perspective

The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) established a set of core indicators of sustainable tourism in 1995, which were promoted as a useful tool in the operationalisation of sustainable tourism development. Local authorities provide an established framework within which to operationalise the WTO's core indicators of sustainable tourism. This paper examines the extent to which sustainable tourism is reflected in the research practices and attitudes of local authorities within New Zealand. A nationwide survey investigated the importance of tourism, the current status of research and the perceived value of the WTO's core indicators of sustainable tourism within the New Zealand local authority framework (regional councils, territorial local authorities and regional tourism organisations). The importance of tourism within local authority areas was positively correlated with the number of different research activities undertaken.Two main types of research were identified: demand-related and supply-related research. Demand -related research is undertaken within the majority of local authority areas throughout New Zealand. However, supply-related research is under-represented. The WTO's core indicators were generically grouped into economic, planning, social and ecological indicator types. Regional councils showed a preference towards ecological indicators. Territorial local authorities and regional tourism organisations preferred economic and social indicators. The detailed implications are discussed.     

Tourism and Transport Relationships: The Suppliers' Perspective in Gateway Destinations in New Zealand

This paper provides a supply-side perspective on how tourism development might be fostered by enhancing the links between tourism and transport. This question is explored by identifying issues raised by tourism suppliers relating to the Cook Strait ferry services between Wellington and Picton (New Zealand) and examining how visitation in these two gateways might be developed so that they have more of a destination function. Five major themes emerged; “the characteristics and products of contrasting places”; “sales and marketing”; “the implications of ferry cancelations”; “fast ferry speed restrictions and environmental impacts”; and “threats and opportunities from the creation of another gateway ferry port in Clifford Bay”. The question of destination development is thus extended by focusing on ferries, a less commonly studied mode of transport, drawing on the perspectives of tourism suppliers, stakeholders whose voice is rarely heard in the transport and tourism literature; and in studying places with multiple nodal functions.     

For-profit environmental voluntourism in Costa Rica: teen volunteer,host community,and environmental outcomes

With its growth in popularity, voluntourism (volunteer tourism) has seen greater attention from the research community. This case study research investigates the tripartite outcomes of a for-profit environmental voluntourism program in Costa Rica, focusing on teen participants, host community, and the environment. Authors conducted field research and gathered data from online surveys, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and participant observation with 108 respondents, including teen voluntourists, parents, and community influentials. Findings indicated community stakeholders perceived projects to be meaningful, with visible social and environmental benefits. In the short term, teens showed an increased concern for social and environmental problems, as well as a heightened awareness of environmental issues. Self-reported increases in time spent volunteering after students completed the program was less prevalent; however, 19% of teens stayed committed to volunteerism and civic engagement through completion of more than one voluntourism service tour. We documented longer term positive outcomes in relation to pro-environmental behavior change and attempts at intergenerational learning. Unexpected outcomes were documented in relation to bolstering of longer term academic and life/career paths after completing a service trip. We highlight best-practices for planning projects through individuals with longstanding community connections and an ability to facilitate outcome oriented, meaningful service projects.     

Towards Sustainable Tourism Development and Planning in New Zealand: The Public Sector Response Revisited

This paper reports the findings of a monitoring survey of the extent to which principles of sustainability embodied in New Zealand's Resource Management Act have been addressed by public-sector planners dealing with tourism. The survey extends the earlier research by Dymond (1997) and Page and Thorn (1997) on public-sector planning responses to tourism and sustainability in New Zealand. The study shows that many of the issues raised by these authors have not been addressed, and that the scale and pace of change in tourism is such that planners have seen an escalation of resource consent applications.     

The Impact of Sports Events on Inbound Tourism in New Zealand

Sports events are an instrument of destination marketing for host countries. Over the past 40 years, New Zealand has held sports events such as the Commonwealth Games and the America's Cup and many international tourists have visited New Zealand during these events. While past studies have examined the economic value of such tourism at a generic level, the impact of mega sports events at more specific levels is unknown. Thus, this study examines not only the impact of eight mega sports events upon New Zealand's international tourist arrivals over the 1983–2005 period at the overall level, but also the number of tourist arrivals from participating countries for each event. Results suggest that the 1990 Commonwealth Games, the 2000 America's Cup (yachting) and the 2005 British and Irish Lions Tour (rugby) had a significant impact on tourist arrivals overall and on arrivals from each participating country.     

Community agency and sustainable tourism development: the case of La Fortuna,Costa Rica

Previous sustainable tourism research has called for the promotion of community-based tourism as a means of achieving sustainable development goals. Such community-based development has been noted as essential for sustainable practices because of its capacity to benefit local populations while reducing tourism's negative consequences. Nonetheless, some researchers have warned that community-based tourism, by itself, does not necessarily lead to sustainable practices. This study examines local social interactional elements necessary for the achievement of sustainable tourism practices. Such practices are attainable when certain attitudinal, organizational and/or behavioral conditions are present within a community. Using a case study methodology, this article examines the interactional elements by which residents of La Fortuna, Costa Rica, engaged in sustainable tourism practices. The study was based on the theoretical notion of the community field. It used key informant interviews and participant observation. The study shows how economic, social and environmentally sustainable practices were made possible through community agency, the construction of local relationships that increase the adaptive capacity of people within a common locality. Key factors found to enable community agency are strong intra- and extra-community interactions, open communication, participation, distributive justice and tolerance.     

Labour,leisure and household income in rural settlements: an empirical assessment in the Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica

The relationship between labour use, the availability of leisure time and the generation of income in rural farm households is often depicted as an implicit or explicit trade-off. This article presents a review of current theories regarding the supply, demand and use of labour at farm household level, followed by an empirical assessment of time allocation of labour and the composition of farm household income in a sample of peasant households located in different types of agrarian settlements at the Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica. Structural determinants of labour use and leisure choice, as well as the relationship between household income and the availability of leisure are determined. Major differences in land use and labour allocation between settlements according to the period of colonization (old or recent) and the type of colonization (spontaneous or organized) are outlined. Small farms in organized settlements rely on labour-intensive cropping systems that guarantee higher incomes at the expense of leisure, while farms in spontaneous and more remote settlements still maintain labour-extensive production with reliance on wage labour. Empirical evidence points towards a clear trade-off between leisure-time and marginal income as well as possibilities for substitution of family labour by hired labour to increase leisure. Personal characteristics ( i.e. education, age, work attitudes) and farm characteristics ( i.e. location, farm size, lifetime) are identified as relevant factors to explain leisure choice.     

Sustaining the Physical and Social Dimensions of Wilderness Tourism: The Perceptual Approach to Wilderness Management in New Zealand

The dynamics of the tourism industry are well illustrated by the case of New Zealand's tourism development over the last decade. The number of international tourists visiting New Zealand has doubled in the last ten years to approximately 1.5 million annual visitors. Associated with this growth has been a significant shift in patterns of tourist demand. No longer do most tourists simply comply with established tourist routes linking the high profile scenic attractions. Rather tourists have demonstrated a preference for more independent and dispersed patterns of travel, including an increase in demand for settings that offer subjective qualities of wilderness experience. This poses a complex but intriguing management challenge. If wilderness recreation involves pristine natural settings in the complete absence of facility development and visitor management, then these resources are more prone to degradation so than any other natural tourism resources. This paper suggests that an understanding of tourist perceptions of wilderness is crucial to the management of wilderness tourism, and considers the application of the perceptual approach to wilderness tourism as a means of sustaining wilderness values while promoting the satisfaction of visitor expectations.     

World Heritage Listing and the Evolving Issues Related to Tourism and Heritage: Cases from Australia and New Zealand

The relationship between heritage and tourism at Word Heritage Sites is thought to be particularly problematic. Yet, each year more heritage sites gain this status. This paper explores the issues that emerge between tourism and heritage at two heritage sites, one with World Heritage listing and the other embarking on the application process. Interview data were collected in relation to the Royal Exhibition Buildings and Carlton Gardens (REB), Australia and Oamaru's Historic Precinct, New Zealand; secondary data were used to contextualise the findings. The findings of the two case studies indicate that the process, and outcomes, of World Heritage (WH) status influence the nature of the relationship between heritage and tourism. The findings of this case study analysis indicated that prospect of WH listing seems to be a catalyst for decision-making and developing networks between the various stakeholders of heritage and tourism, but heritage stakeholders seem to be grappling for power at this time. Once the listing process is successful, heritage then seems to gain the balance of power, and tourism seems to be less successful in controlling the situation. Further research is warranted on this topic to explore whether the findings from two sites can be generalised to other heritage sites.     

Willing Workers on Organic Farms (WWOOF): A Neglected Aspect of Farm Tourism in New Zealand

Despite the importance of farm tourism to many rural communities in New Zealand, there has been no attention given to the contribution of the Willing Workers on Organic Farms (WWOOF) venture to farm tourism in New Zealand. While the primary objective of the venture is organic farming, the facilitation of tourism experiences on the farm remains an additional concern among WWOOF hosts. This paper is based on a postal survey of 67 WWOOF hosts located in four main regions of New Zealand's South Island. The study sought to understand the management of WWOOF farms in relation to their role in providing tourism opportunities, to determine the reasons for becoming a WWOOF host, to provide a demographic profile of hosts and evaluate the environmental values and attitudes held by hosts. The study findings highlighted that WWOOF hosting has over recent years provided an increasing contribution to farm tourism in New Zealand. The study also provided some evidence to suggest that the motivations and experiences of WWOOF hosts were notably different from that of other farm tourism hosts. In particular, environmental ethic and shared knowledge of organic practices were considered essential.     

Lifestyle Market Segmentation,Small Business Entrepreneurs,and the New Zealand Wine Tourism Industry

ABSTRACT

Wine tourism is an important niche activity for which participant needs and motivations have been somewhat under-researched. This paper describes a case study investigation to evaluate the nature of buyer/seller relationships that evolve in a wine tourism setting. Visitors to three small New Zealand wineries were interviewed to gather data relating to their lifestyle behaviors and their attitudes towards the wine tourism experience, and factor analysis used to categorize these visitors in terms of the List of Values typology of lifestyle characteristics. Results indicate that the 'achiever' and 'funlover' segments are well represented amongst winery visitors, but that there is an appreciably lower incidence of 'belonger' personalities. Implications of these findings for the wine tourism industry are considered.     

Partnerships in International Travel and Tourism Marketing: A Systems-Oriented Approach Between Australia,New Zealand,Germany and the United Kingdom

Abstract

Little empirical research has been conducted about international partnerships between travel and tourism organisations, airlines and their intermediaries such as wholesalers and travel agents. Nevertheless, these partnerships are important because tourism is becoming more international and most destinations have to compete at a global level. Moreover, both producers and intermediaries are increasingly using information technology to increase their knowledge and relationship with customers. Thus this research set out to develop and empirically confirm a systemic model of these partnerships and four related research objectives. The methodology involved multiple case studies based on in-depth interviews with key players in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Germany. The first outcome is a confirmation of the systemic model. In addition, the findings show the reasons for engaging in partnerships and the scope for further partnerships among the industry players. As well, the findings show that while ‘disintermediation’ may occur because of the advancement of communication technology, the linkages between travel and tourism organisations, airlines and intermediaries are still significant. Our framework can assist public and private travel and tourism organisations to mutually develop and manage marketing strategies and tactics for overseas markets.     

A Framework for Managing the Biophysical Effects of Tourism on the Natural Environment in New Zealand

Tourists in New Zealand often impact on the natural environments that are the very reason for their visits. It is, therefore, necessary to manage those natural environments to help ensure that tourism is an environmentally sustainable activity. To assist that management process, it is helpful to establish an overarching classification framework so that consistent guidelines and environmental performance standards can be applied. This paper describes a framework for management of the biophysical impacts of tourism using a natural environment classification of the assets visited by tourists. 'Best available information' is then used to develop indicators of environmental change and associated guidelines for management at a range of levels. As a minimum, broad guidelines can be developed for the upper levels of each component of the classification. More detailed and site-specific guidelines are available in some circumstances, where appropriate research has been undertaken. Ongoing evaluation of the combination of indicators and guidelines establishes if the natural attraction is being sustainably managed. The system has been applied to 'scenic icons', wildlife attractions and caves on the West Coast of the South Island.     

Analysing the Promotion,Product and Visitor Expectations of Urban Tourism: Auckland,New Zealand as a Case Study

Abstract

Urban tourism is generally not recognized as a concept. There appears to be a lack of understanding by many tourism operators that tourists visit urban destinations primarily because they are multifunctional and offer a wide variety of activities. This study reports the findings of an analysis of 160 tourism brochures by 120 different Auckland-based operators and a survey of 170 tourists. The results indicate that there appears to be a mismatch between supply and demand with tourists undertaking urban activities while the industry is primarily offering outdoor and adventure type activities. The challenge for the future is to reformulate and promote an image which is consistent with the supply attributes.     

低碳旅游:一种新的旅游发展方式

随着人类生态文明建设进程的推进,低碳经济、低碳技术、碳汇机制、低碳消费方式正日益影响和诱导着人类的生产和消费方式。旅游作为人类文明进步的产物,具有响应低碳经济模式、运用低碳技术、推行碳汇机制、倡导低碳消费方式的先天优势。以营造低碳旅游吸引物、建设低碳旅游设施、培育碳汇旅游体验环境和倡导低碳旅游消费方式为主要实现路径的低碳旅游发展方式,是旅游响应低碳经济发展方式的具体行动,为生态文明新时代背景下的可持续旅游发展方式提供了新的发展指向。     

杭州旅游:新城市新模式新发展

从研究者自我融入与审视的视角出发,以城市旅游发展为分析接入点,对杭州旅游业发展基本脉络与特征研判后认为,杭州城市旅游未来的发展来自系列化的旅游创新,核心是三全体系的建构,即全要素旅游资源、全环节旅游产品和全领域旅游产业,但杭州开拓性旅游业未来发展的部分障碍也需要给予重点关注.以杭州为案例地的城市旅游发展模式、经验与问题对国内类同旅游地有重要的借鉴和参考价值.