The nominal group technique: An approach to consensus policy formulation in tourism

The use of the Nominal Group Technique (NGT) as a tool for consensus planning in tourism is discussed. NGT is described specifically with respect to an initial planning exercise conducted by the Tourism Industry Association of Alberta, Canada (TIAALTA), who had concluded in 1983 that the private sector should play a greater role in developing and managing tourism in Alberta. TIAALTA used NGT to identify priority issues and problems. Other applications of NGT are described, and the method is compared to other qualitative methods. The author recommends increased application of NGT in tourism research, planning and management.     

The environment‐community symbiosis: A case for collaborative tourism planning

This article advances the proposition that sustainable tourism can be achieved through recognition that the public and private sector, the host communities and the natural environment are interdependent stakeholders in a complex tourism ‘domain’, where no single individual, agency or group can resolve strategic tourism issues by acting alone. The planning and management of this domain for the purpose of achieving sustainability requires moving away from traditional approaches towards dynamic collaboration among the stakeholders of the tourism development and planning domain. Collaboration provides a flexible process which evolves over time, enabling stakeholders to disseminate and manage problems or issues on an interactive basis. It offers an attractive alternative to adversarial problem solving methods in tourism planning and management, when inter or multi‐sectoral participation is required. The paper commences with a discussion of the shortfalls of traditional tourism planning processes and models, followed by an overview of collaboration ‘theory’. Examples are given which illustrate collaborative approaches in several mountain resort areas. An exploratory case study of tourism development and planning issues in the mountain community of Canmore, Alberta (Canada) is then presented, leading to a discussion and conclusion regarding the theoretical and practical applications of collaboration toward achieving sustainable tourism.     

Conceptualising a contemporary marketing mix for sustainable tourism

This paper outlines how marketing, though traditionally considered an enemy of sustainability, can play a role in implementing sustainable tourism. It notes the redefinition in 2007 by the American Marketing Association of marketing's aims to consider wider societal issues beyond those of clients and customers. It illustrates how the recognition of the importance of sustainable tourism at all scales of tourism activity provides marketing with an opportunity to pursue sustainability outcomes. We review the strategic tourism marketing planning process and conceptually develop a sustainability tourism marketing model that embeds sustainability considerations at each stage of the planning process. Our proposed model contributes to sustainable tourism theory development and offers a conceptual tool for managing a tourism organisation's ecological and societal footprint on the supply side and a critical opportunity for transforming consumer decision-making on the demand side, irrespective of tourism scale. A 30-cell matrix is proposed that cross-references a strong set of 10 marketing elements (product, price, promotion, place, participants, process, physical evidence, partnership, packaging and programming) against the questions posed by the triple bottom line of economic factors, the environmental and sociocultural concern, creating a check list of indicators for management purposes.     

Towards adaptive tourism areas? A complexity perspective to examine the conditions for adaptive capacity

Tourism area development is affected by the competitive global tourism industry and the complex, multilevel dynamics of the contemporary network society. The strategic planning and governance challenge is stimulating tourism areas to become adaptive areas, being capable of responding to changing contexts in order to maintain or improve the performance of these areas as competitive tourism destinations. This article examines conditions for “adaptive tourism areas”. It does so on the basis of a complex adaptive system (CAS) perspective on tourism area development. The perspective is used to conceptualise tourism areas as complex and potentially adaptive systems, and to discuss how tourism area development can be understood as a multilevel, co-evolutionary and path dependent process. Furthermore, the CAS perspective is used to draw attention to the importance of a degree of diversity in terms of tourism products, experiences and firms. Encouraging a degree of diversity requires among other things interconnectivity among actors to ease communication and coordination, (policy) experimentation for niche-innovations, learning and reflexivity. The article ends with a discussion on the potential of, and constraints on, pursuing adaptive tourism areas from a strategic planning and governance point of view.     

The green globe programme: Developing a greener future for travel and tourism

This paper examines the concept of sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand and its relationship to the Resource Management Act. The paper considers the public sector planning responses towards tourism development issues within the context of New Zealand's Resource Management Act, and the ability of these organisations to respond to tourism issues. It argues that the absence of a national vision for tourism is a major constraint on achieving sustainable tourism options at the regional and local level because the Resource Management Act s principles of sustainable planning are not guided by any national policy or strategy. By using a postal questionnaire, the paper provides the first in-depth analysis of planners responses to tourism and their ability to integrate tourism into the planning process within New Zealand. The paper also expands the arguments initially developed by Dredge &; Moore (1992) on the lack of integration in relation to tourism and planning.     

Using public participation GIS (PPGIS) on the Geoweb to monitor tourism development preferences

This paper presents a method for identifying and monitoring regional tourism development preferences using an Internet public participation geographic information system (PPGIS). In 2004, a large baseline study of landscape values and development preferences was completed on Kangaroo Island (KI), South Australia, using low technology, paper-map PPGIS. In 2010, we implemented an Internet-based PPGIS monitoring study with the same participants to (1) determine the efficacy of smaller scale monitoring efforts using an Internet-based PPGIS, (2) examine whether residents' tourism development preferences had changed over the last six years and (3) assess the strengths and weaknesses of the PPGIS methodology for identifying changes in tourism development preferences. Since KI is the first international tourism destination to adopt the Tourism Optimization Management Model (TOMM) for monitoring tourism outcomes, we contrast the PPGIS monitoring method with information from the TOMM process. Our results indicate that tourism development preferences remained relatively stable over the past six years with some small changes on the western reach of the island. We argue that an Internet-based PPGIS method can be an effective tool for tourism development planning and monitoring because the method is place-based, cost-effective and provides tighter coupling with land use planning controls such as zoning.     

The Delphi technique in the measurement of tourism market potential: The case of Nova Scotia

In order to plan for the development of tourism in Nova Scotia it has been necessary to gather information and opinions on the industry on a more detailed scale than has hitherto been done. Here the Delphi technique is used to gather data on tourism research, on future impacts of tourism and to strengthen a regional data base, all of which are intended to act as an effective policy-making tool in solving management and planning problems in the tourism and hospitality industry. The impact of new technology (in particular the CHECK-INN system) and training needs are discussed in detail.     

Visitor management in the public planning policy context: A case study of Cambridge

Visitor management plans are increasingly seen by local authorities as an essential contribution they can make towards sustainable tourism. However, tourism is subject to many external influences and is only part of the system of activities and land uses at the destination. Successful visitor management must, therefore, be broadly based and rooted in a wide range of policies. The objectives for sustainable tourism in Cambridge are supported by policies at the European, national, regional, county and local level covering tourism, recreation, transport, the environment, land use and economic development. This results in an integrated policy framework that ensures consistency, encourages cooperation and long‐term planning, makes the best use of resources, opens up additional sources of finance and provides a firm justification for refusing undesirable development. Achieving integration requires the visitor management plan to be seen neither as an end nor as a beginning, but as part of a process. In Cambridge this has involved a commitment to monitoring and reviewing strategies and to ensuring a policy input on tourism issues at all levels of decision making. Appropriate ad hoc bodies have been set up. Visitor management cannot succeed in isolation: other policies must be made to work for it, not frustrate action.     

中国旅游地理学研究转型与国际化对比

大众旅游时代,中国旅游业发展正进入重大变革期和调整期,这要求我们要立足中国旅游业基本国情,重新审视中国旅游地理学研究转型问题。文章认为,中国旅游地理学研究国际化是重要趋势,这种国际化也在一定程度上推动着研究本土化进程。中国特色旅游地理学研究在总体方向上要扎根于旅游产业重大需求实现转型,在研究对象上,从典型旅游地研究向国土游憩空间优化研究拓展;在研究重点上,从旅游要素研究逐步向旅游地复杂地域系统过程模拟与预测研究转型;在研究范式上,更加从现有理论研究和规划实践的脱节向“理论研究—规划实践—政策应用”的有效链接提升。在此过程中,国外旅游地理研究可为中国旅游地理学研究提供重要借鉴参考。     

The tourism of Indian California: A neglected legacy

California's heritage attracts a large portion of the tourism market, and has an even greater potential. Yet, in contrast with the southwest where Indian cultural resources are actively promoted, California's Indian heritage is almost totally neglected. The purpose here is to review historic and current factors limiting California Indian tourism development; to examine roles of California Indians vis-a-vis governmental agencies who present the Indian heritage; and to suggest how domestic tourism models might be revised to better accommodate tourism goals. Tourists, middlemen, and hosts share significant aspects of culture such as history and language in domestic tourism. Their lifestyles and usual environs, however, may contrast as urban versus rural. Recommendations are presented for increased co-directorship of the California Indian heritage and more availability to some tourist types.     

Roots of unsustainable tourism development at the local level: the case of Urgup in Turkey

The main aim of this article is to investigate and explain the roots of unsustainable tourism development at the local level in a developing country, with special reference to Urgup in the region of Cappadocia, Turkey. It was found that the factors that ushered in unsustainable tourism development are beyond the control of local people and authorities. They are largely related to issues at the national level such as the policy of political economy, prevailing national planning approaches applied to tourism, patron-client relationships between decision-makers and related business class alongside the role of international tour operators in the international tourism system. It concludes that achieving sustainable tourism development at the local level in a developing country requires hard political choices, a confident decision-making process and the collaboration of international tour operators and donor agencies.     

Towards sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand: Monitoring local government planning under the Resource Management Act

In the light of the increasing pace and scale of tourism activity in New Zealand, the concept of sustainable tourism has become a key ingredient in the nation's tourism strategy. This paper explores sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand at the level of local government, and in particular, focuses on the implementation of the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) as a mechanism for achieving sustainable tourism. Using the findings of a survey of Regional Councils and Territorial Local Authorities, the paper explores public sector planning responses to tourism impacts and sustainability concerns in New Zealand. The paper extends the earlier work of Page and Thorn (1997. Towards sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand: public sector planning responses. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(1): 59-77; 2002. Towards sustainable tourism development and planning in New Zealand: the public sector response revisited. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 10(3): 222-238), which identified major issues of concern at local council level with regard to tourism impacts and argued the need for a national vision for tourism to ensure that the RMA achieved its original goals. Since then, a national tourism strategy has been published and changes in legislation have further empowered local authorities to further progress the sustainability agenda. This paper examines these developments and the ensuing implications, concluding that significant progress has been made in developing tourism policies at the local level, but that a number of constraints and issues limit the development of New Zealand as a sustainable destination.     

Assessing the importance of urban tourism: Conceptual and measurement issues

Urban tourism has not received extensive recognition in tourism research, policy and planning yet its current and potential market is great. Improving the understanding of the importance of urban tourism requires the development of analysis and research methodologies related specifically to this sector. Based on Calgary, Canada, this article develops a model of urban tourism systems and ways in which potential and needs may be identified.     

国内乡村旅游研究:蓬勃发展而有待深入

从现有的研究资料看，我国目前的乡村旅游研究主要集中在以下五个方面：乡村旅游概念；乡村旅游开发意义、条件和模式；乡村旅游规划与设计；乡村旅游存在问题和发展策略；国外和台湾乡村旅游发展的经验借鉴。虽然我国乡村旅游研究近年来发展迅速，也取得了不少有价值的研究成果，但整体上研究水平不高，许多方面都有待深入。     

Residents' support for tourism development: The role of residents' place image and perceived tourism impacts

Drawing on the triple bottom line approach for tourism impacts (economic, socio-cultural and environmental) and adopting a non-forced approach for measuring residents' perception of these impacts, this study explores the role of residents' place image in shaping their support for tourism development. The tested model proposes that residents' place image affects their perceptions of tourism impacts and in turn their support for tourism development. The results stress the need for a more flexible and resident-oriented measurement of tourism impacts, revealing that more favorable perceptions of the economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts lead to greater support. Moreover, while residents' place image has been largely neglected by tourism development studies, the findings of this study reveal its significance in shaping residents' perception of tourism impacts as well as their level of support. The practical implications of the findings for tourism planning and development are also discussed.     

Tourism development the case of American Samoa

The purpose of this study was to analyze the development of tourism in American Samoa. The government in American Samoa initiated efforts to develop tourism during the early 1960's. In spite of this, tourism in American Samoa is still in an early development stage. Internal factors which have constrained tourism growth have been the limited natural resources and underlying conflict between the traditional Samoan culture versus western ideas. External factors in the form of increased competition from nearby destinations and shifts in airline services also have limited the number of tourists to the area. The development of tourism in American Samoa is relevant to other less popular and newly developing destinations in the Pacific. Thus, it illustrates the risks and problems in developing tourism in similar Pacific destinations.     

The Problems and Prospects of Sustainable Tourism Development in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

The objective of this paper is to assess the problems and prospects of sustainable tourism development in developing countries with special reference to the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both secondary and primary data sources, this paper points out that tourism in developing countries does not always adhere to the principles of sustainable tourism development. In the Okavango Delta, the tourism industry is designed to meet the interests of tourists from developed countries and is dominated by foreign safari companies. The tourism industry in the Okavango Delta does not significantly take into consideration the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of the host economy. It is characterised by: the marginalisation of local companies and investors; leakages and repatriation of tourism revenue from Botswana to developed countries; the failure of tourism to promote rural development and poverty alleviation; and, the failure to observe local environmental regulations to conserve the Okavango Delta as a natural ecosystem. This paper argues that, despite these problems, such destinations have the potential to contribute to sustainable tourism development. This requires a planning process that satisfies the needs of tourists and tour operators while being sensitive to the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of host countries and destinations.     

旅游意象图:基于游客感知的旅游景区规划新设想

受启发于"城市意象"理念和图论学说,文章从游客感知出发,提出"旅游意象图"的旅游景区规划设想,认为旅游意象的基本要素包括旅游道路、旅游节点、旅游边界、旅游标识和旅游区域5个方面,旅游意象图的构建过程可分解为旅游意象点→旅游意象线→旅游意象链→旅游意象面→旅游意象图5个基本步骤,指出可从资源类旅游意象、产品类旅游意象、市场类旅游意象3个层面确定具体的旅游意象,并分析了旅游意象调研的4大基本方法:传统问卷调查、绘制心智地图、旅游意象游戏法和旅游意象访谈法。     

Tea tourism development in Xinyang,China: Stakeholders' view

Tea continues to be a popular beverage in the world. As a new niche tourism market, tea tourism has developed both in China and many other countries for decades, but academic research has lagged behind tea tourism development. This paper focuses on stakeholders' views of tourism development, their potential roles and concerns in the case of tea tourism in Xinyang prefecture of central China. Interviews and open ended questionnaires were conducted in 2007 and 2008. Qualitative analysis indicates the following: 1) According to stakeholders' view, tea tourism development in Xinyang failed despite many good tea tourism attractions, and better tea tourism planning, marketing and collaboration between stakeholders in Xinyang is required for successful tea tourism development; 2) Local government, tea garden owners, media, travel agencies and tea tourists are thought to be the principal stakeholders with different roles to develop tea tourism; 3) Collaboration between stakeholders is crucial for tea tourism development. The implications of the findings are discussed with a view to permit recommendations to be made.