Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China

The conceptual framework of the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) has been frequently examined since it was first proposed by Butler in 1980. However, few studies have applied the concept to national parks and other protected areas. This paper examines the applicability of the model to China's Zhangjiajie National Forest Park. In addition, both external and internal factors affecting the park's tourism development as well as the environmental, social, and economic changes of the area are also discussed. Results indicate that the park has experienced the first four stages as described in Butler's 1980 seminal paper [The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24, 5–12]. Currently, the park is in the consolidation stage. Both governments and the private sector are major players as catalysts for the park's tourism development from one stage to the next. While the local or even regional economy has become increasingly dependent on tourism, the park has also been experiencing noticeable transformation and loss of traditional cultures since its inception in 1982. Finally limitations to the current paper are outlined.     

When,where, and with whom during crisis: The effect of risk perceptions and psychological distance on travel intentions

We investigate how risk perceptions and psychological distance impacted people's travel intentions during Covid-19. Our findings reveal that traveling to a high-risk destination increased people's risk perceptions of Covid-19, and their risk perceptions at the destination, which, in turn, reduced people's travel intentions. We identify temporal, spatial, and social distance (the “when, where, and with whom” of traveling) as moderators of these effects; while social distance moderates the effect of risk, on risk perceptions, temporal and spatial distance moderate the effect of risk perceptions on travel intentions. We outline theoretical contributions and implications for tourism during crisis.     

Visitor perceptions of World Heritage value at Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park,Nepal

World Heritage sites must exhibit outstanding universal value, integrity, and authenticity. Based on this context, this study examined whether visitors to Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal (World Heritage Site inscribed under criteria vii in 1979) recognized it for its exceptional beauty and aesthetics. This study explored the basic concept of perceived park authenticity at this site, and associated factors that influenced the perception of World Heritage values. Questionnaire surveys were administered to 522 international visitors at the park. Exploratory factor analysis and ordinal logistic regression were used for analysis. Results indicated that visitors perceived the park to be authentic, preserved integrity, and constituted outstanding universal value. Additional regression results identified that overall trip satisfaction and educational level were statistically significant predictors of perceptions of authenticity, integrity and outstanding universal value of the park. Prior visits, substitutability of the park, age, and income were statistically significant predictors of perceptions of either authenticity, integrity or outstanding universal value of the park. Results suggest that emphasis on visitors‘ needs via interpretation and professional guides may solicit more favorable attitudes towards this site.     

Eco-efficiency and its determinants at a tourism destination: A case study of Huangshan National Park,China

This study creates a comprehensive evaluation index system, including undesirable outputs and a Slacks-Based Measure-Data Envelopment Analysis model, to analyse the characteristics and evolution of eco-efficiency at an individual tourism destination. This study also empirically identifies the determinants of eco-efficiency. Huangshan National Park, one of the most iconic and highly visited national parks in China, was chosen as the study site. The study results indicate that eco-efficiency has improved continuously. Pure technical efficiency is higher than scale efficiency, while eco-efficiency is more relevant to scale efficiency than to pure technical efficiency. The evolution of eco-efficiency undergoes four stages: an initial inefficient stage, a rapid growth stage, a mature efficient stage and a downside risk stage. Moreover, tourism development, industrial structure and technical level have significantly positive impacts on eco-efficiency, but investment level displays the opposite trend. Environmental regulation emphasizing waste control does not effectively promote eco-efficiency. Finally, theoretical and practical contributions of the findings are discussed in the context of eco-efficiency at a tourism destination. For instance, an eco-efficiency analysis of a destination should treat the tourism destination as a macro-scale system with complex evolutionary rules and should combine this perspective with theory, such as the tourist area cycle of evolution proposed by Butler in 1980.     

Structural effects of cognitive and affective reponses to web advertisements,website and brand attitudes,and purchase intentions: The case of casual-dining restaurants

This study investigates the structural relationships among responses to website advertisements, website attitudes, brand attitudes, and purchase intentions in the case of web advertisements for casual-dining restaurants. Responses toward advertising (Rad) factors were categorized as cognitive responses and affective responses. The SEM model in LISREL was used to examine the interrelationships among the proposed hypothesized constructs. Several empirical results were obtained. First, Rad had a positive effect on website attitudes. Second, website attitudes had a positive effect on brand attitudes. Third, brand attitudes had a positive effect on purchase intentions. Finally, some discussion and implications of the study are provided.     

Responsible tourism management: The missing link between business owners' attitudes and behaviour in the Cape Town tourism industry

The global threat of climate change, diminishing natural resources and significant socio-economic inequalities is forcing companies and individuals to evaluate the impact they are having on the natural, social and economic environments. This trend has led to an increased availability and demand for socially, environmentally and economically responsible products. The tourism industry relies heavily on the sustained beauty and hospitality of the places and communities it operates in and has come under pressure to manage its negative and positive impacts. Change in the industry has, however, been limited. This paper investigates the current attitudes and perceptions of tourism business owners in Cape Town towards responsible tourism management (RTM) practices. Cape Town as an internationally acclaimed top tourism destination needs to urgently address its low levels of responsible tourism evidence. Survey data of 244 tourism businesses were used to statistically test what factors are causing the low levels of RTM practices in the Cape Town tourism industry. Findings suggest that despite general positive attitudes towards RTM, businesses are not investing time and money into changing management practices. This is a common emerging market phenomenon where resource constraints negatively impact the relationship between what businesses would like to do and what actually gets done. Factors such as the perceived cost of RTM, a highly competitive environment and a perceived lack of government support are further negatively influencing this relationship. Recommendations are made as to how the costs of implementing RTM can be reduced and what channels should be implemented to facilitate change.     

The role of generativity and attitudes on employees home and workplace water and energy saving behaviours

Building on prior studies in environmental behaviour and employee micro level CSR, this paper examines the role of generativity, encompassing thoughts towards the well-being of future generations and contribution to future society, and specific environmental attitudes on environmental behaviour in the home and workplace. The paper examines the relationships between these variables, including assessing spillover effects between home and workplace environmental behaviour via a quantitative survey methodology, within the hospitality industry in Iran. Analysis using PLS found generativity to be important in determining attitudes and, in turn, environmental behaviour both in the workplace and the home. However, a spillover effect between home and workplace behaviours was not found. Thus, this research adds to the limited literature on CSR at the micro employee level in tourism studies and highlights the effects of generativity on home and workplace behaviours, as well as potential directions for internal social marketing campaigns within tourism organisations.     

Perceptions of tourism revenue sharing impacts on Volcanoes National Park,Rwanda: a Sustainable Livelihoods framework

Tourism revenue sharing (TRS) has become a popular strategy for integrated wildlife conservation and rural development in Africa. In Rwanda, 5% of tourism revenue is invested annually in communities adjacent to protected areas. However, the conservation impact of the TRS strategy has been challenged. Previous studies have revealed structural constraints of TRS, which partially explain TRS shortfalls. The TRS application is complex and needs deeper understanding of both conceptual and structural constraints. In this paper, we examine local perceptions of TRS, and use the Sustainable Livelihoods framework to conceptually understand the livelihood capability, equity and sustainability constraints of TRS at Volcanoes National Park (VNP). Results suggest that TRS has had minimal conservation impact due to acute food insecurity and limited livelihood capabilities among the poorest residents in proximity to VNP. This is exacerbated by several TRS structural constraints, such as the association membership fee requirement for TRS benefits, political influence, poor conservation linkages, and limited participation of the most socially and economically disadvantaged residents in proximity to VNP. This paper recommends restructuring of the TRS decision-making process to ensure consideration of both short-term and long-term conservation goals, wildlife conservation linkages and participation of the most economically disadvantaged residents in proximity to the park boundary.     

Pro-poor tourism: residents' expectations,experiences and perceptions in the Kakum National Park Area of Ghana

This paper examines Ghana's evolving tourism policies with special reference to its spatial and pro-poor impacts. Using a sample of 182 respondents around the Kakum National Park in Ghana's Central Region, an area which is rich in tourism assets but economically poor, it examines residents’ expectations, experiences and perceptions about tourism development in the area. While some expectations were too much, others had been met, if only somewhat. Residents’ experiences in terms of direct socio-economic benefits were modest. But largely on account of indirect gains from a range of pro-poor interventions, the majority had a fairly positive perception of tourism in the area. Respondents of communities beyond the Park's reception area had gained more from associated interventions rather than from tourism. Age and place of birth were also found to be key variables that influenced residents’ perspectives on tourism development in the area. Nevertheless, residents’ overall perception suggests that sustainable tourism development requires an approach that simultaneously improves the tourism product and enhances residents’ livelihood options. The need for residents to be involved in decision-making if pro-poor tourism is to be successful was underlined.     

The implications of hotel employee attitudes for the development of quality tourism: the case of Cyprus

In an increasingly competitive market, the issue of quality has grown in significance for tourism businesses and destinations alike. This has been influenced by a number of factors, such as the expansion of consumer rights and the alleged emergence ‘new’, quality conscious tourists. In particular, it is the need to retain or increase competitive advantage that has underpinned the drive for quality in tourism—certainly, many destinations, especially those operating in the highly competitive summer-sun market, are now adopting quality tourism development strategies. However, little or no attention has been paid to the role of tourism industry employees, particularly those in hotels, in the success of quality management programmes. The purpose of this paper is to address this omission. Based upon a survey of hotel employees in Cyprus, it identifies a number of factors that may support or limit the drive towards quality service provision, with a variety of implications for the destination as a whole as well as individual hotels. In particular, hotel management should implement strategies based on reward systems, empowerment and reducing staff turnover, whilst there is an important co-ordination and guidance role to be played by the national tourism organisation.     

Illegal hunting and protected areas: Tourist perceptions on wild animal poisoning in Hwange National Park,Zimbabwe

Tourists visiting protected areas for leisure often have perceptions based on pre-conceived knowledge and awareness about wildlife conservation obtained through various media. However, these perceptions are rarely tapped into for management and policy reviews. To understand tourists' perceptions on conservation, we surveyed 76 tourists in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, using a questionnaire administered through convenience sampling. Our results showed significant differences (χ² = 11.8; df = 1; P = 0.001) between tourists who acknowledged awareness (69.7%, n = 53) of the use of chemical poisoning to kill wild animals prior to their visit and those who were unaware (30.3%, n = 23). We conclude that some tourists are concerned about the state of wildlife conservation at their destinations of choice. We recommend the consideration of tourists concerns in conservation policies and strategies.     

Supply-side investments: An international analysis of the return and risk relationship in the Travel & Leisure sector

This study investigates supply-side investments in the tourism sector, analysing the return and risk relationship of investments in tourism across several countries. The performance of tourism sector companies listed on the stock exchange, for the top one dozen countries according to the World Economic Forum (WEF) tourism rankings, is investigated by region, across these countries and within each country by comparison to other sectors. Several metrics are used to compare the risk-adjusted returns, over a 15-year period ending March 2007 and sub-periods to check the persistence of performance over time. The results present a strikingly different ranking than those of the WEF. The implications for the flow of investment funds are of importance in a global capital market. Money will flow to those investments with the highest expected returns for a given risk level and this has consequential impacts for economic growth and employment in the tourism sector.     

The planning,development and management of tourism: The case of Dangjia,an ancient village in China

“Ancient villages” are rural settlements in China that achieve this classification because of their historic, cultural and architectural values. Nonetheless, while they have long histories and are considered as tourism assets they may also face social, economic, environmental and political problems. This article analyses these issues using a qualitative and quantitative analysis derived from research at Dangjia Ancient Village, Shaanxi, China. It identifies changing patterns in demand and shifts in the modes of meeting those demands – from modes that are individually based to those that are dependent on local government interventions. Much of this change is due to deficiencies in local social and financial capital. Suggestions are made regarding ways to improve the sustainability of rural tourism, which have a wider application on a national and international scale.     

Valuing visitor services and access to protected areas: The case of Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda

Policymakers and recreation site managers use changes in fee structure, either introducing park entrance fees or increasing existing ones, to generate revenues, improve services, and reduce damages associated with over-use. Increase in park usage fee, however, can make the park inaccessible to certain segments of tourists. Understanding park users' response to changes in fees and its implication on park use equity is, thus, important to achieving a park's full potential in a socially and environmentally responsible way. This information is crucial especially for developing countries, where the issue has received relatively less attention and national park systems are chronically underfunded. This paper contributes to the literature on park access fees by: empirically assessing park use equity between and among international and national tourists visiting Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, and; developing an approach for determining predictors and mean willingness to pay values for park entrance. Results of our survey-based approach show a positive willingness to pay values for park entrance and fee increases. Our results also show that it is possible to raise revenue without exacerbating existing park use differences.     

Visitor spending and economic impacts of heritage tourism: a case study of the Silos and Smokestacks National Heritage Area

Heritage is regarded as one of the most significant and fastest growing components of tourism. The development of heritage tourism as a generator of income besides the enhancement of community pride and identity has emerged as an objective of both heritage sites and tourism planning. The discretionary nature of expenditures in heritage tourist places makes it crucial to understand visitor spending pattern. This is key in demonstrating the economic contribution to the community for the tourism planners. This presentation is based on an intercept survey of travelers to the Silos and Smokestacks National Heritage Area (SSNHA), comprising 37 counties in Northeast Iowa. Visitor spending pattern is discussed among four categories of heritage sites in the SSNHA: farms, museums, parks and gardens, and businesses. IMPLAN Input–Output Model is utilized to generate the direct, indirect and induced economic impact in the area.     

Tourism,Marketing and Sustainable Development in the English National Parks: The Role of National Park Authorities

This paper examines the work of the English National Park Authorities (NPAs) in relation to aspects of the development of sustainable tourism. The NPAs have implicitly sought to achieve sustainable tourism development since the parks were first designated, striving to balance the needs of visitors and the environment within the context of living, working landscapes. Studies have revealed, however, that some NPAs are not fully championing sustainable tourism development. The paper examines the NPA's use of marketing and marketing perspectives in encouraging sustainable tourism, exploring attitudes, roles and activities. A diverse, piecemeal and sometimes underinformed approach is revealed. The paper concludes with ways forward for English NPAs and for other protected area management organisations.     

Weather perceptions,holiday satisfaction and perceived attractiveness of domestic vacationing in The Netherlands

Despite variable and relatively cool summer weather, domestic vacations in countries around the North Sea are an important type of tourism. However, relations between weather and domestic tourism in this region remain understudied. A quantitative research (n = 326) among domestic camping tourists in The Netherlands explores perceived personal significance of the weather, operationalized as Weather Salience (WxS), and its relation with attractiveness of domestic vacationing, adaptive touristic behavior and perceived differences between home and destination. Results show that WxS relates positively to attitudes toward domestic tourism and to holiday satisfaction. While higher levels of WxS enhance feelings of being away from home due to the weather, lower WxS increases indifference about holiday weather. Weather differences between home and destination are perceived but depend on region, accommodation type and WxS levels. Implications for (domestic) tourism climatology research are discussed and potential lessons for stakeholders employing tourism activities in temperate climates are provided.     

Females' perspectives on tourism's impact and their employment in the sector: The case of Petra,Jordan.

This study aims to explore the trend towards gender equality in the tourism sector of the Petra region, Jordan. To do so, a mixed methods design including a questionnaire and in-depth interviews was employed for female residents of rural and urban areas in the region. The results show that women do not have favourable view of tourism's economic impacts and that several barriers exist to their employment in the tourism sector. The findings' implications and future studies are addressed.     

Tourism specialization,economic growth,human development and transition economies: The case of Poland

This study examines the relationship between tourism specialization economic growth, and human development in a transition economy. It proffers a conceptual link between tourism specialization and human development through a division of labor framework. Dynamic comparative advantage, Sen's capability approach, and the translog production function characterize the conceptual relationship. The Limited Information Maximum Likelihood (LIML) estimates this relationship's nature in the case of Poland. Tourism specialization has a short-term effect on economic growth and a negative and indirect link to human development. Economic growth seems the channel that supports human development expansion, indicating short- and long-term significant, positive effects. Human capital reveals a U- shape pattern in its relationship with economic growth and human development. The study's implications are two testable propositions and two policy options suggesting tourism specialization's potential impact on private and public incomes, which are relevant developmental channels in transition economies.     

Heritage Tourism,Heritage Landscapes and Wilderness Preservation: The Case of National Park Thy

Tourism involving national parks manifests itself explicitly or implicitly as heritage tourism because national parks represent important symbols of the national landscape. This paper traces the journey of the proposed National Park Thy in northwestern Denmark from ordinary landscape to symbolic landscape, to candidacy for national park status and focus for heritage tourism. It is argued that the processes at work in Denmark are similar to those underpinning the creation of national parks elsewhere.