Agritourism from the perspective of providers and visitors: a typology-based study

In recent decades, international studies have improved understanding of how agritourism is practiced. However, studies are founded on a range of definitions based on different combinations of key characteristics, which have been synthesised in our recent typology (Phillip, Hunter, & Blackstock, 2010). The typology provides a foundation for this study, which further develops conceptual understanding of agritourism by integrating empirical understandings of agritourism with the original typology, which was based on the literature. Our revised typology presented here incorporates three discriminating characteristics, which are fundamentally consistent with the original version: the nature of interaction between visitors and agriculture; whether the product is based on a working farm; and whether the visitor experiences authentic working agriculture. This paper makes two important contributions to the agritourism literature: 1) it integrates stakeholder perspectives to the agritourism literature; and 2) it exemplifies and examines one way that the typology can be used to underpin further agritourism research.     

Diversity of offerings and consumer’s expenditure: an exploration of agritourism in China

ABSTRACT

As diversification becomes a pressing issue in China’s agritourism, extant literature provides insufficient and controversial findings on its influence. This research investigates the influence of the diversity of offerings on consumer’s expenditure, considering its interactive effects with quality and distance, by conducting analyses of hierarchical regression, multiple-linear regression and exploratory factor analysis. It is found that the diversity of offerings does not affect consumer’s expenditure alone, but interactively with quality and distance; consumer’s expenditure can be maximised with an optimal distance depending on the diversity of offerings; and there are four main business models of agritourism in China.     

The perceived benefits of agritourism: The provider’s perspective

This study examines the perceived benefits of agritourism by examining the importance of this activity in accomplishing 16 goals of farmers receiving visitors for recreation on their farms. This study also examines several farm household and business attributes associated with the accomplishment of four goal dimensions driving agritourism development. Data were derived from a survey conducted among 164 agritourism farms in Missouri. Results showed that agritourism mostly serves to capture new farm customers, educate the public about agriculture and enhance the quality of life for the farm family, which represents both, economic and non-economic benefits. Organized by goal dimensions, findings showed that agritourism is perceived as most important for market related goals, suggesting that the economic role of agritourism should not only be measured in terms of increased profits but also as a marketing tool. Four significant regression models showed that several farm business and household attributes are associated to the perceived agritourism benefits within four goal dimensions, suggesting opportunities for tailored promotional messages and policy considerations for the entrepreneurial development of agritourism.     

An ecologically and socially inclusive model of agritourism to support smallholder livelihoods in the South Pacific

The neglect and marginalisation of smallholders in economic and development policy contributes to increasing vulnerability of rural communities. Underinvestment in agriculture, climate change impacts and growing competition for land and water places further pressure on smallholders. In this context, this paper examines the current focus in the South Pacific on strengthening the linkages between tourism and agriculture through agritourism. The paper seeks to merge multiple discourses, by firstly reviewing the development model that is driving tourism and linkages to agriculture in the South Pacific. Secondly, agritourism as it is conceptualised in the tourism literature and thirdly sustainable tourism discourse, to identify economic activities within agritourism that contribute to enhancing smallholders’ livelihoods in the South Pacific. An ecologically and socially inclusive model of agritourism is put forward based on principles of sustainable tourism and agroecology – referred to as agroecological tourism. Agroecological tourism strengthens the linkages between tourism and agriculture while fostering sustainability principles.     

Considering the role of agritourism co-creation from a service-dominant logic perspective

In recent decades, providing production and service simultaneously has remained an unsolved problem in developing agritourism. This study adopted the concept of service-dominant logic, with a service blueprint to assist entrepreneurs in designing agritourism activities that will enhance the tourists' experience within four working farm field experiments. The results showed that agritourism activities with SDL design (experiment B) did not comprehensively enhance the experience of tourists learning agricultural knowledge. The agricultural activities (i.e., experience of rural culture) (experiment C) and other tourist behaviors (i.e., tourists' mutual engagement) (experiment D) were integrated with SDL agritourism activities in order to more effectively enhance the tourists' experience of agritourism and lead to an increase in tourists' intention to revisit and actual purchase of agricultural products. Based on our findings, rural culture and tourists' mutual engagement were critical for agribusiness to integrate the specific characteristics of internal service (e.g., agritourism activities or service strategy).     

Assessing the sustainability of agritourism in the US: a comparison between agritourism and other farm entrepreneurial ventures

Diversifying on-farm enterprise portfolios, especially through agritourism, is claimed to increase farm revenues and help alleviate the economic problems of family farms. Thus, the adoption of agritourism in the US has steadily increased during recent years. Agritourism is also suggested to produce environmental and sociocultural benefits. To quantify these benefits, this study assessed the sustainability of agritourism farms, compared with other farm entrepreneurial ventures, using the “sustainable development” and “farm enterprise diversification” frameworks. Data from 873 US farms with a diversified entrepreneurial portfolio revealed that agritourism farms approach sustainability to a greater extent than their counterparts, producing multiple environmental, sociocultural and economic benefits for their farms, households and even society. Results suggest that agritourism, compared with other farm entrepreneurial ventures, is more successful in increasing farm profits, creating jobs and conserving the natural and cultural heritage. For example, 52.4% of agritourism farms have been within the same family for at least two generations and 73.3% are willing to pass the farm on to their children, proportions that are significantly higher than other entrepreneurial farms. Study results also show, however, that while many agritourism farms practice integrated pest management, they need to be more engaged in other environmentally friendly and conservation practices.     

The effect of agritourism experience on consumers’ future food purchase patterns

Recent studies on agritourism share a common voice in that the economic benefit of agritourism to farms is significant but rather small. However, the majority of studies examine only the short-term economic impact of agritourism. This suggests that the potential long-run economic impacts of agritourism may not have been empirically investigated yet, leading to underestimation of its net impact. Meanwhile, theories on mere exposure and product familiarity suggest that agritourism may lead tourists to change their agriproduct purchasing patterns after the experience. Thus, this study examines the effect of agritourism experience on consumers' future grocery purchase patterns. Household-level consumer panel data on grocery expenditure is estimated through the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) approach. The results indicate that agritourism experience significantly alters consumers' expenditure patterns in the food categories of grain, vegetable, fruit, meat, and fish. Implications for research and practice are discussed along with the findings of the study.     

Agritourist Needs and Motivations: The Chiang Mai Case

Agritourism has contributed to the growth in Thailand's tourism industry. Having said that, many of agritourism businesses are not successful as they do not know what agritourists need and/or are looking for. The purpose of this study is to examine what agritourist needs and motivations are and how they correlate among themselves. The samples in this study were domestic agritourists who have stayed at agritourism accommodations and/or visited agritourism attractions in Chiang Mai, Thailand. In turn, this research has identified three groups of agritourist needs and three groups of agritourist motivations. Strategic implications for agritourism providers are proposed.     

Elite governance of agritourism in the Philippines

Abstract

Agritourism, particularly in the West, is imagined to be an organic assembly of family farms driven by urban middle class demand for new rural tourism experiences. In the developing world, it is increasingly advocated as a rural development tool with the promise of uplifting the lives of small farmers in sustainable ways. We challenge the assumption of the farm family at the helm of agritourism development, advocating instead for a more complex understanding of agritourism governance. We argue that agritourism involves multisectoral governance networks that are subject to the political economic realities of where these networks are situated. Thus, agritourism may endure the same social inequalities one would find in other rural development initiatives in the Global South. Agritourism in the Philippines is a case in point. Based on qualitative research, our findings show that agritourism in the Philippines is driven by a complex elite network involving state and private entities that are engaged in patronage politics. The uneven power dynamics associated with this governance arrangement create conditions that favor old and new landed elites and exclude marginalized small farmers, contradicting any official statement that promises inclusive rural development.     

Conceptualising a tourism consumption-based typology of yoga travellers

This paper proposes a new conceptualisation for understanding yoga tourism through a refined typology of yoga travellers. After an extensive literature review, we employed a typological analysis method to evaluate six existing yet diverse yoga typologies. This conceptual paper proposes that yoga travellers can be understood through a new typology with seven categories informed by the Theory of Tourism Consumption. This typology proposes the following types of yoga travellers: Culture Focused Yoga Traveller (CFYT), Initiator, Explorer, Masters, Spirituality Focused Yoga Traveller (SFYT), Philomath Yoga Traveller (PYT), and finally, the Indulgent Yoga Traveller (IYT). This consumption-based perspective can inform and facilitate product development in yoga destinations through a refined understanding of the travel behaviour of yoga tourists.     

Diaspora Chinese tourism: Cultural connectedness and the existing academic insights

Tourism scholars and practitioners tend to regard diaspora tourism as a homogeneous market, with needs that can be met through general types of products. Adopting a literature review approach, this article has conducted a review of the extensive research on the diaspora, immigration, and root-seeking tourism to China. The conceptual framework provides a holistic perspective for researchers and destination managers to study diaspora tourism. This shows that the demand dimension of diaspora tourists is related to the structure of diaspora communities. Place attachment (sense of nostalgia), transnationalism, cultural (re)connectivity, hybrid self-identity (re)constructions and the nation-state power metrics of China for overseas Chinese, are as identified as factors that determine motivation for “returning home”. Further research is suggested to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the typology of diaspora tourism that may need to be considered in order to meet the needs of diaspora tourists in future planning and strategy formulation.     

Antecedents and consequences of managerial behavior in agritourism

Drawing from contingency theory and the concept of entrepreneurship, this study investigates the viability of small-scale agritourism business. Specifically, this paper identifies the antecedents (i.e., external environment and internal conditions) and consequences (i.e., financial and non-financial benefits) of managerial behaviors (i.e., innovation, pro-activeness, and aggressiveness) that exist when operating an agritourism business. Based on responses from the USDA census of agriculture, the results of this research reveal the heterogeneous effects of antecedents that contribute positively and negatively to managerial behavior. The varied influences of managerial behavior on different types of business performance are identified. Also, theoretical implications of the development of agritourism studies as well as managerial implications for owners, consultants, and policymakers related to the small tourism business in rural areas are provided.     

Influences on Tourism Development Decision Making: Coastal Local Government Areas in Eastern Australia

With sustainable development and specifically sustainable tourism, decision making is perhaps the area where the impact on the future of communities is most crucial. Understanding better the decision-making process, provides possibly the most important potential tool in the sustainable management of tourism development. This paper examines the influence factors on tourism decision making and sheds some light on how important various influences are in the tourism development decision process. A typology of community decision-making influence factors was examined through research on local government councillors in Australian coastal regions. Three major categories of this typology were identified in the literature and further explored in this study: inter-personal, intra-personal and circumstantial influence. Results from this study show that a number of influence factors which relate to sustainable tourism are considered by councillors to have a more profound effect on their decision making than only the components of social influence theory which has been discussed in much of the literature. Utilising this typology of community decision-making influence factors may form the foundation for further studies of decision making. The results suggest that influence factors on decision makers need to be both understood and taken into consideration for sustainable tourism approaches to be effectively implemented.     

Visitors with their ‘Backs to the archaeology’: religious tourism and archaeology

This paper presents a conceptual analysis of the crossover between religious tourism and archaeology. It begins with a clarification of what religious tourism is and continues to consider the link between archaeological sites, religious heritage and religious tourism. It then moves on to a supply-focused typology of sites and a typology of visitors according to their characteristics. It also discusses the primary conflicts existing today between archaeology and religious tourism. In light of this discussion, it concludes with thoughts on possible future research needs. The paper conceptualized the multiple relationships between religious tourism and religious archaeology. Archaeological remains that also serve as attractions for religious tourism appear to have unique characteristics, the understanding of which is important for long-term planning and development that will take into consideration archaeological, religious, political, and tourism needs. A better understanding of these contexts may also ultimately contribute to our understanding of the development versus conservation arguments facing archaeological areas.     

Understanding Chinese cultural tourists: typology and profile

ABSTRACT

This study aims to offer a clear and up-to-date typology and profile of Chinese cultural tourists in mainland China following the framework based on cultural centrality and depth of cultural experience. Using a sample of mainland Chinese tourists (n = 656) at three cultural attractions in Guangzhou, China, a typology of Chinese cultural tourists (namely casual, sightseeing, purposeful, serendipitous, and incidental) was developed and trip characteristics (e.g. prior knowledge, time spent to get to know the site before visit, change in knowledge, and on-site activities) and sociodemographics of each segment were also examined. In addition, slight differences are found between local day-trippers and tourists from outside Guangzhou in terms of their types and characteristics (prior knowledge, change in knowledge, and sociodemographics). Destination marketing and management implications are provided.     

Health-care tourism — an exploratory study

This article explores the concept of health-care tourism. It is based on a pilot study that involved a survey of 206 travellers, 22 travel agents, 12 medical doctors and two herbalists; a review of the tourism and travel literature; and content analysis of 284 travel brochures about 24 countries. Healthcare tourism is defined, the sample, methods of data collection, findings, and implications are discussed, and future research areas suggested. Health-care tourism can be used to define an effective marketing strategy.     

Co-production versus co-creation: A process based continuum in the hotel service context

This paper reviews the theoretical underpinnings of co-production and co-creation and discusses these service production approaches in a hotel context. Based on a synthesis of the literature, we present a co-production to co-creation matrix and offer several propositions: (1) the co-production versus co-creation concepts create a continuum rather than a dichotomy; (2) service innovation and the customisation of service production are conceived as lying somewhere between co-production and cocreation on this continuum; and (3) the key factors that define a typology of service production types (co-production, service innovation, customisation, and co-creation) include the primary value-creation driver and customer involvement/dialogue type. We further discuss the benefits for hotels of moving from co-production to co-creation on this continuum. As one of the first papers to discuss co-creation in hospitality, it contributes to the field by providing specific theoretical and practical implications for how hotel companies can move from co-production to co-creation.     

A typology of memorable experience at Nelson Mandela heritage sites

This study examines cultural heritage tourism by identifying and segmenting heritage site visitors according to the aspects they define as necessary for a memorable heritage site experience. The research focusses on visitors to Nelson Mandela Heritage Sites and emphasises that the links between the attributes of a site and the visitors themselves are essential to understanding tourists’ willingness to pay to visit the mentioned sites. A typology of visitors that the authors labelled ‘auxiliary experience seekers, convenience experience seekers and comprehensive experience seekers’ (ACC) was used. The results revealed comprehensive experience seekers as the most critical market segment regarding the much significantly higher amount they are willing to pay when visiting Nelson Mandela Heritage Sites. This leads to a better understanding of aspects contributing towards a memorable heritage site experience as well as to visitors’ willingness to pay for such experiences. This study also provides further insight into cultural heritage tourism in general. Moreover, such segmentation was found as a useful research tool for producing a distinct visitor profile as well as how a memorable experiencing can be generated by suggesting diversified pricing at such sites.