Data-Driven Phase Analysis of E-negotiations: An Exemplary Study of Synchronous and Asynchronous Negotiations

In this empirical study, we present a new method for analyzing coded and categorized data of negotiation protocols. By applying a data-driven identification of negotiation phases we are able to identify endogenous dynamics of negotiation processes and to combine advantages of both, episodic and stage models of phase analysis. We present an exemplary study in which we compare processes of synchronous and asynchronous electronic negotiations. This analysis shows that, while synchronous negotiations follow a phase model similar to sequential stage models as discussed for face-to-face negotiations, asynchronous negotiations show less evidence of such a structure.     

Ups and Downs: Emotional Dynamics in Negotiations and Their Effects on (In)Equity

Organizational scholars now acknowledge the relevance of emotions in virtually every aspect of organizational life, including negotiations and conflict resolution. Integrating negotiation phase model theory with social functional models of emotion, we test hypotheses about the development of emotions in negotiations and their effects on the degree of economic (in)equity of the counterpart’s subsequent offer during the actual negotiation process. By comparing stalemate dyads with efficient settlement dyads, the study identifies emotional dynamics that characterize successful as opposed to unsuccessful negotiations. Results show that observed differences are primarily the result of impasse dyads spiraling into a negative emotional climate rather than efficient settlement dyads having overall higher levels of positive emotions or increasing them throughout the negotiation process. As predicted by social functional models, the study further confirms that emotions are not only a reaction to the economic (un)fairness of a proposed offer, but their display also influences the payoff (in)equity of the counterpart’s subsequent offer. Whether a specific emotional expression increases or decreases the economic fairness of the counterpart’s subsequent offer, however, differs across negotiation phases and between dyads that reached an agreement or not. Furthermore, the results show distinct differences between emotions that address individual goal realization in negotiations and emotions that focus on the relational, interpersonal aspect of negotiations, both with regard to their development as well as their function. Taken together, the results shed light on the mechanisms leading to the emergence of conflict spirals.     

NegoManage: A System for Supporting Bilateral Negotiations

In this paper we present the NegoManage system, which aims at supporting the bilateral negotiation during all negotiation phases. The support includes the problem structure identification, the analysis of individual preferences of both parties, the messaging and offers exchange and the post-negotiation improvements of the agreement. The preference analysis is supported with a novel mechanism involving the specification of the classes of alternatives’ quality that represent particular levels of potential satisfaction from accepting this alternative as the negotiation solution. The consistency of preferences is also checked. The actual negotiation phase is performed in a typical way, namely the negotiators exchange multiple offers and messages. The novelty introduced in this phase is the mechanism for profiling the negotiators based on the classification of exchanged messages. The post-negotiation optimization phase employs the concept of a bargaining solution for improving the solution obtained in the previous negotiation phase. We present the way the mechanisms proposed work using simple numerical examples.     

How to Attain Desired Outcomes Through Channel Conflict Negotiation

Channel relationships are dynamic and complex. Though much of channel literature has dealt with power, dependency, and conflict resolution, relatively little research focuses on how channel members apply different modes of negotiation to resolve channel conflicts and, most important, how they finagle their ways through different stages of negotiation to obtain desirable outcomes. This article suggests that in deciding which strategy to adopt to effectively negotiate with others, channel members should take into account two vital outcomes during the negotiation process: substantive gain and relationship outcome. Integrating high versus low levels for each of these two types of outcomes, this study develops a framework for channel conflict negotiation in an international setting and recommends appropriate negotiation strategies for various scenarios and phases of negotiation.     

Two-Party Negotiation Modeling: An Integrated Fuzzy Logic Approach

Game theoretic models attempted to predict unique equilibrium outcomes of negotiations with limited success. The imprecise character of negotiation is often altered to fit the game theorist's exacting approach. Alternative models deviated from the formal game theoretic approach and attempted to accommodate concepts such as negotiator power and time pressure. In this paper, we introduce a model which uses a fuzzy logic approach to deal with the imprecision in the negotiation process and to integrate several negotiation theories. The new model is used to simulate multiple-issue, two-party negotiations and results are consistent with established negotiation theories.     

Towards a model of destination innovation process: an integrative review

The goal of the present paper is to integrate five types of literature related to the innovation process (i.e. cluster theory, innovation systems, network relations, knowledge management, and innovation types) and apply them to the local tourism destination to build a destination innovation process model with macro and micro perspectives. The suggested models intend to broaden the thinking on destination innovation process for tourism-related agents at the local and national level. The paper undertakes a careful review of the relevant literature before creating the conceptual models. The paper’s novelty and uniqueness lies in suggesting a new conceptual model of addressing how innovation competence of tourism destinations can be developed, and offering insight for tourism-related agents at the local and national level into how to effectively create and manage innovations. Future research should undertake empirical studies to test the integrated models presented in this conceptual paper.     

A Comparative Analysis of Multilateral Environmental Negotiations

Global environmental problems pose important diplomatic and legal challenges to the international community. The nature of these problems requires an unprecedented degree of international cooperation that is achieved through multilateral negotiation, which is often shaped by scientific uncertainty, the complexity of the issues, and the wide range of actors and interests. One way of analyzing and explaining this complicated process is through the use of comparative analysis. By breaking down the negotiating process into a series of phases and turning points, it becomes easier to analyze the roles of different actors, the management of issues, the formation of groups and coalitions, and the art of consensus building. This article uses comparative analysis to characterize, develop, and specify a model of the multilateral environmental negotiation process. The model is elaborated upon inductively through a comparative analysis of eleven cases of multilateral environmental negotiations. Statistical techniques are used to determine whether there is any relationship among attributes of the process (within the phases or at the turning points) and between these characteristics and outcomes.     

Negotiation Support and E-negotiation Systems: An Overview

With negotiation being an often difficult process involving complex problems, computer-based support has been employed in its various phases and tasks. This article provides a historical overview of software used to support negotiations, aid negotiators, and automate one or more negotiation activities. First, it presents several system classifications, including implemented models, system architectures, and configurations of various systems interacting with human negotiators. Then, it focuses on NSSs (negotiation support systems) and related systems introduced in the early 1980s and on ENSs (e-negotiation systems), which are deployed on the web. These broad categories are discussed from four perspectives: real-life applications, systems used in research and training, research results, and research frameworks.     

Investigation of agency agreement formation: new opportunities for marketing relationship development in service industries

This paper examines agent–principal agreements that prevail in marketing structures. Structural equation modeling reveals a new positioning of the relative importance of antecedents in agreement formation for two agency contexts (recruitment consultants and real estate agents). The insignificance of negotiation in agreement formation deviates from services marketing relationship models in which negotiation pre-empts commitment. A close coupling of agent attributes and information disclosure similarly positions business and consumer exchanges, contrary to sales literature. As agreement formation is not directly determined by any single event, management should not focus on outcome-based metrics for process refinement.     

International Business Negotiations A Turn-Key Project

The article describes and analyses the negotiation process between a Swedish supplier and an African customer. Although the literature on international business negotiations is very poor, it is reviewed; a model for international business negotiations is developed and then utilised to describe and analyse a case-study. The factors influencing the negotiation process are identified and conclusions are drawn; the process took a very long time, more than two years, and a number of unexpected issues caused interference in the process. The differences in cultural background and the atmosphere between the parties strongly affected their chances of reaching a mutually satisfactory agreement.     

Loss Aversion and Reference-Dependent Preferences in Multi-Attribute Negotiations

Negotiation analysis and game theoretic bargaining models usually assume parties to have exogenous preferences from the beginning of a negotiation on and independent of the history of offers made. On the contrary, this paper argues that preferences might be based on attribute-wise reference points changing during the negotiation process. Aversion against losses relative to the reference point determines negotiators’ decisions in the negotiation and after its termination. The emergence and implications of reference points in a negotiation context are motivated, exemplified, and modeled formally. Furthermore, data from an internet experiment on endogenous preferences in bilateral multi-attribute negotiations is presented. The data supports the behavioral model.     

Exploring the factors influencing the negotiation process in cross-border M&A

This research study provides an empirical examination of the impact of national cultural distance, organizational cultural differences, communication, and planned employee retention on the effectiveness of negotiation process in the cross-border mergers & acquisitions (M&As). We developed and tested a conceptual framework of negotiation process in order to provide a framework for analysis of the key components of the negotiation process in the cross border M&A. The findings indicate that communication positively influence antecedent and concurrent phase of negotiation process. In addition, national cultural distance and organizational cultural differences negatively influence the effectiveness of concurrent phase. We also found that national cultural distance moderates the relationship between communication and effectiveness of concurrent phase of the negotiation process, as such that the positive effect of communication is lower when national cultural distance is higher. Furthermore, we found that planned employee retention positively affect the effectiveness of concurrent phase. Finally, the effectiveness of concurrent phase positively influence the effectiveness of consequent phase i.e. M&A agreement. The contribution of this study lies in providing new insights on negotiation-associated factors for incumbent executives, in order to enable them to better plan and implement cross-border mergers and acquisition deals.     

Integrating Time-Preferences into E-Negotiation Systems: A Model,Elicitation Approach and Experimental Implications

Researchers have advocated that the acquisition of user preferences is important to the successful adoption of electronic negotiation systems. In this paper, we focus on one such preference, namely time preference, wherein the price of a good/service varies according to the delivery/consumption time. Time preference is a behavioral aspect that varies across buyers. We discuss how different types of preferences can be elicited, represented and integrated with electronic negotiations. We discuss three experiments to study the effect of time preferences on negotiation. The first is a preference elicitation experiment involving 36 subjects. The next two are agent-to-agent negotiation experiments, one based on the individual preferences obtained earlier and the other based on an expanded dataset on both individual preferences as well as negotiation parameters. The agent-based experiment compares outcomes and efficiencies between the standard exponential discounting model and two behavioral models of time preference. Our results bring out the preferences of subjects, as well as the extent to which negotiation is affected and enhanced by the incorporation of time-preferences.     

A Multiagent Model for Coordinated Distribution Chain Planning

The aim of this article is to show the advantages that the use of a multiagent model can provide in implementing vertical and lateral coordination among the components of a noncentralized distribution chain. This model has been implemented in Java language in order to allow for the development of a Web-based decision support system that can perform the coordination strategies, simulated in this article in a real logistics chain.

This article, after introducing the main concepts related to the adoption of coordination mechanisms within a supply chain, the main issues of agent-oriented technology, and a brief review of the related literature, presents the structure of the proposed model and the static and dynamic behaviors of the decision-making agents. The design issues of specific coordination models, the negotiation mechanisms introduced, and their proper tuning are then discussed. The models have been applied to a real two-level distribution system of an electromechanical company, made up of a supplier and a geographically distributed network of retailers. Experimental results showed the benefits derived from the adoption of coordination-based models, above all in supply contexts, characterized by relevant information sharing among the main tiers of the chain.     

The diffusion of e-participation in public administrations: A systematic literature review

Research on e-participation has grown significantly in the last years. This review focuses on public administrations, which are central actors in the solicitation and organization of e-participation and in the process of diffusion of more democratic decision-making in government contexts. However, research indicates that public administrations often struggle with technological and organizational changes, which suggests that e-participation initiatives may fail due to barriers within public administrations. Although researchers have paid considerable attention to the diffusion of e-participation in public administrations, research so far is multi-disciplinary and fragmented. The aim of this literature review is to structure and systematize the literature regarding phases of e-participation diffusion (adoption, implementation and institutionalization) and levels of analysis (micro, meso, and macro) to map the extant field of e-participation diffusion research and to provide a starting point for future research. The analysis shows that research has concentrated on the phases of adoption and implementation, and on the external context of public administrations (macro) and the organizational (meso) level. Overall, the review identifies major research gaps and offers avenues for future research.     

A Formal Basis for Negotiation Support System Research

A high-level theoretical model of negotiation activity is introduced as a foundation for guiding future research and development in the area of negotiation support literature. A formal model at this level is presently absent from the negotiation support systems. The model is formally expressed in terms of definitions and postulates that describe eight important negotiation parameters. Relationships between the model and research in game theory, social behavior science, and decision support systems fields are examined.     

Culture and negotiation

Negotiation has three elements: predisposing factors, process, and outcomes. Process is the art and outcomes is the science of negotiation. Culture adds a new consideration that affects each element. Culture's effects on negotiation are studied using Geert Hofstede's dimensional model of culture. The negotiation process and Hofstede's culture model are combined in four settings. The settings are defined by two factors, if the negotiation is within or between cultures and the role of the participant as a negotiator or intervener. The predicted effects of culture on the process and outcome are detailed for each setting. Then the outcomes of the negotiation decision are discussed in terms of Hofstede's model, especially “Uncertainty Avoidance” and “Masculinity-Femininity” dimensions. Culture clearly influences each aspect of negotiation. Understanding culture can make the participants more effective negotiators and interveners.     

Boundaries in Bargaining: A Multidimensional View

Boundaries have positive and negative effects on international negotiation processes. This article states that the positive side of boundaries has often been neglected and that limitations are absolutely vital for effective international bargaining processes. Without restrictions, negotiation processes lose their significance as a tool in inter state and inter organisational policy making and conflict resolution. The article briefly analyses six boundaries that help international negotiation processes reach the stage of an internationally acceptable agreement: geography, systems, needs, resources, regulators, and time.     

Toward an Understanding of the Role of Cross-Cultural Equivalence in International Personal Selling

In this paper the authors argue that the internationalisation of business requires, amongst other things, a sound knowledge of the impact of cross-cultural equivalence on international sales negotiations. A literature review provides evidence that there is little or scant attention paid on the nature, role and impact of equivalence on the cross-cultural negotiation process. By using the negotiation process as a coherent framework, the purpose of this paper is: (i) to examine various types of cross-cultural equivalence that are related to the negotiation process; (ii) to identify the relationship and likely impact of each type of equivalence on each stage of the negotiation process and its outcome; and, (iii) to offer propositions for further research, and propose a research method by which these propositions can be investigated.