Vegetarianism: Toward a greater understanding

Vegetarianism continues to gain prominence in contemporary society. This research uses a two‐phase approach to further the understanding of this phenomenon. In the first phase, a phenomenological perspective is utilized to provide a deeper understanding of the motivations, tensions, and coping mechanisms underlying vegetarianism. The second phase builds upon this understanding and broadens the scope of the research by introducing the concept of vegetarian orientation. Here, survey methodology is employed to investigate the manner in which a person's demographic, attitudinal, and personality characteristics influence his/her vegetarian‐oriented attitudes and behaviors. Findings and their marketing implications are discussed. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Towards understanding network relationships in online retailing

This paper views e-commerce (B2C) as a retail innovation that evolves along with newly emerging technological system around the Internet. In the case of e-commerce, this system consists of retailers as adopters and co-developers of technological solutions invented/commercialized by specialists. As part of 'new economy' business practices, what is needed for establishing successful e-commerce venture in terms of tangible resources and competences is not necessarily acquired internally but are coordinated via network relationships. The paper proposes to identify different e-commerce strategies, and outlines the kinds of actors involved in the networks that seem to go along with each strategy. While suggesting that different e-commerce strategies correspond to different networking strategies it points at the importance of relational competences in varying online retailing contexts.     

Sustaining relationships after opportunism and misunderstanding: the role of formalization and socialization

This study compares the effects of governance mechanisms on relationship continuity in the aftermath of exchange interruptions in interfirm relationships. We propose that cooperative relationships can be renewed by matching governance mechanisms (formalization or socialization) to specific types of exchange interruptions (opportunism and misunderstanding). Using data collected from two types of senior managers in 304 buyer firms in China (a total of 608 senior managers), we found that the effects of formalization and socialization on relationship continuity are contingent on exchange interruption type. Socialization is more effective than formalization in renewing relationships when the level of opportunism is high, while formalization works better than socialization when the level of misunderstanding is high. Based on our findings, we encourage firms to diagnose exchange interruption types and then choose a proper governance structure.     

Toward understanding business student professional development engagement

Professional development engagement (PDE) is defined as the level of perceived undergraduate engagement in professional development activities. An 11-item measure of PDE exhibited a good reliability. Using a complete data sample of 467 graduating business undergraduates, four variable sets (student background or precollege variables, college-related variables, organization-related variables, and motivation-related variables) each explained significant incremental variance in PDE. Significant individual correlates of PDE included joining a student professional organization and motivation to attend business school. One outcome suggests that business schools need to leverage technology more aggressively to deliver professional development content both asynchronously and synchronously to more of their undergraduates.     

Toward understanding socio-economic inequalities in injury incidence and mortality

The existing knowledge on socio-economic inequality in injury risks is scarce and inconsistent and there is still a great need for sound epidemiological studies in this field. When performing these studies, the injury research community could benefit from the experience gained within other areas of public health. A recent project from the European Union has led, for example, to a set of proposed guidelines on several methodological aspects. Many of these are probably relevant for the injury problem field and will be addressed. Major issues are: – The distinction between individual-level and area-based studies; – The selection, measurement and classification of possible socio-economic indicators; – The expression of the magnitude of health inequalities with the help of possible summary indices; – The definition of the outcome measure (morbidity or mortality, general or specific). This paper illustrates the relevance of the aforementioned methodological issues with empirical data. Results are shown from both individual-level and area-based studies, using different socio-economic indicators and outcome measures. It is concluded that a systematic approach towards understanding socio-economic differences in injury incidence and mortality has not yet been conducted and seems highly needed. Future work in this area could benefit from experience gained within other areas of public health.     

Toward a better understanding of corporate accelerator models

Corporate accelerator programs—accelerators managed by or directly sponsored by one or multiple established firms—are becoming an integral part of startup ecosystems and an important startup engagement vehicle for established firms. Previous research focused either on independent accelerators or on corporate accelerator programs that one established firm operates internally. However, new accelerator models emerged recently, making the corporate accelerator phenomenon more diverse. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the different types of corporate accelerators, along with their objectives and characteristics in order for managers to better understand which type best fits their organization. Our insights on corporate accelerators emerged from secondary data and interviewees from companies and accelerator programs. We used these insights to categorize the programs into four corporate accelerator models that vary according to number of participants and the accelerator’s management structure and explain how companies can select the right model for their objectives.     

Using influence strategies to reduce marketing channel opportunism: The moderating effect of relational norms

In an empirical study of the North American lodging industry, we investigate the efficacy of influence strategies for managing opportunism in marketing channels. We posit that the effects of influence strategies upon opportunism are moderated by the extent to which relational norms characterize the channel exchange. The results support this moderating effect. In particular, we find that relational norms have an asymmetrical effect across coercive and noncoercive influence strategies. With high relational norms in the relationship, a channel member’s use of noncoercive influence strongly limits partner opportunism whereas the use of coercive influence exacerbates partner opportunism. In contrast, noncoercive influence intensifies and coercive influence mitigates partner opportunism under conditions of low relational norms. These findings offer first insights for curbing opportunism in marketing channel relationships with the simultaneous use of different socialization mechanisms. The authors acknowledge support for this study from the summer research program of the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration and the two hotel companies we studied and thank Reed Fisher for help with the data collection.     

A behavioral model of international channel relationships

Purpose: The main purpose of the study is to fill the existing gap in international relationship marketing (IRM) literature by developing and testing empirically a comprehensive conceptual model of firms’ relationship with their marketing channels in export markets. Whereas concepts such as power, conflicts, trust, commitment, and communication have been shown to be related to the economic success of interfirm cooperation in general and buyer–seller relations in particular, the need for a comprehensive model is often expressed in the literature.

Methodology/approach: The authors combine commitment-trust theory with resource-based and knowledge-based view perspectives to develop a new comprehensive conceptual model of firms’ relationship with their marketing channels in export markets. Data from 104 strategic business units in Israel was used to test the model empirically.

Findings: Notably, the model tested explained a higher percentage of the variance in performance. The findings suggest that noncoercive power enhances relationship quality (i.e., communication, trust, and commitment), which in turn improve cooperation and export performance. Conflict had a negative effect on relationship quality. In addition, cooperative conflict management strategies had a positive moderating effect on the conflict— relationship quality link, whereas competitive conflict management strategies had a negative moderating effect on the impact of conflict on relationship quality. Finally, the results suggest that there are strong positive relations between communication and trust and between trust and commitment.

Research implications: The research develops and tests empirically a conceptual comprehensive model of firms’ relationship with their marketing channels in export markets by including major performance drivers. The model incorporates conflict management strategies and combines commitment-trust theory with resource-based view (RBV) and knowledge-based view (KBV), an innovative combination with great explanatory potential. Based on the findings, there is sufficient support for using the suggested model as a new integrative behavioral model that explains channel relationships.

Practical implications: The results indicate that managers should use noncoercive power and cooperative conflict management strategies in order to positively affect relationship quality (i.e., communication, trust, and commitment), which in turn enhances cooperation and export performance.

Originality/value/contribution: The suggested research model presents a novel combination of existing relationship marketing (RM) knowledge with the limited IRM knowledge into a comprehensive IRM model. It includes new relationships beyond those studied before. Integrating and synthesizing results from a large body of conceptual and empirical literature led to the final model. Accordingly, it contributes elements of newness. First, the model includes major antecedents of performance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive model of firms’ relationship with their international marketing channels in export markets. Second, there are almost no studies investigating conflict management strategies neither in RM nor in IRM models. Accordingly, a contribution of this research is incorporating conflict management strategies within the model and analyzing their effects.     

Toward an understanding of cross-cultural ethics: A tentative model

In an increasingly global environment, managers face a dilemma when selecting and applying moral values to decisions in cross-cultural settings. While moral values may be similar across cultures (either in different countries or among people within a single country), their application (or ethics) to specific situations may vary. Ethics is the systematic application of moral principles to concrete problems.This paper addresses the cross-cultural ethical dilemma, proposes a tentative model for conceptualizing cross-cultural ethics, and suggests some ways in which the model may be tested and operationalized.William A. Wines is Professor of Legal Environment and Business Ethics in the Management Department, College of Business, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho, USA. His research interests include business ethics, employment law, and public sector collective bargaining.Nancy K. Napier is Professor of Management and Chairman of the Management Department, College of Business, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho, USA. Her research interests include international business, mergers and acquisitions, and human resource management.     

The one-billion-plus marginalization: Toward a scholarly understanding of Islamic consumers

Information regarding the Islamic perspective on marketing is still lacking in mainstream literature. The present work aims to assemble the theoretical foundations of Islamic marketing thought in relation to the modern marketing paradigm. The paper highlights the opportunity costs involved with marginalizing the one billion plus Muslim consumer segment and presents a conceptualization of Islamic religiosity and its marketing implications building upon the Islamic theology infrastructure in terms of its inherent broad objectives (maqasid ash-shari'ah) while putting forth multi-stakeholder research propositions for future testing. The conceptualization presented serves to establish an enlightened dialogue and foster further cross-cultural understanding of the Muslim consumer segment to benefit academics, practitioners, and policy makers.     

Toward understanding the young consumer's brand associations and ethnocentrism in the lion's port

This study examines consumer brand associations, focusing on the differences in price perceptions, self‐image, and brand–image congruency held for Western and Eastern brands of fashion clothing by young Singaporeans. The study also examines consumer ethnocentric tendencies (CET), finding very low levels of ethnocentrism among respondents, and that ethnocentrism had no effect on brand preference or purchase intention for brands from different origins. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The impact of buyer dependence on buyer opportunism in buyer–supplier relationships: The moderating role of relational norms

The impact of buyer dependence on opportunism against the supplier is examined in this research. Extant literature provides support for both a positive and an inverse relationship between these constructs. In this research, these competing predictions are subsumed under a more general model where the effect of dependence on opportunism is moderated by the level of relational norms present in the buyer–supplier relationship. Results of an experiment with purchasing managers and one replication provide support for the hypotheses that (a) dependence and opportunism will be positively related under low relational norms, and (b) dependence and opportunism will be inversely related under high relational norms. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Influence of functional conflicts on marketing capability in channel relationships

Extending the research on the positive effects of functional conflicts, this study examines how functional conflicts influence innovation capability and responsive capability in channel relationships by triggering inter-organizational knowledge sharing. The moderating effects of conflict frequency and relationship quality on the relationships between functional conflict, knowledge sharing, and capabilities are also explored. Based on a questionnaire survey of 152 small- and medium-sized enterprises in China, the results show that (1) functional conflict can stimulate inter-organizational knowledge sharing, but the frequency of conflict negatively moderates this relationship; (2) knowledge sharing has a mediating effect on the relationship between functional conflict and marketing capability; and (3) relationship quality positively moderates the relationship between functional conflict and knowledge sharing, but negatively moderates the relationship between knowledge sharing and innovation capability. These findings broaden the theoretical scope of conflict theory and refine the theoretical framework of channel conflict. This study also has significant practical implications for organizations seeking to effectively guide and resolve conflicts.     

Toward a greater understanding of the market orientation and internal market orientation relationship

The study explores the relationship between market orientation (MO) and internal market orientation (IMO) using the process model of MO development. Data from 370 nonprofit organizations were analyzed using structural equation modeling with maximum likelihood estimation technique. The comprehensive CFA marker method was used to partial out the influence of social desirability bias on the substantive relationships. The study finds that MO works through IMO to elicit desirable employee outcomes, which also contributes to performance outcomes. IMO does not offer direct performance benefits, but it partially mediates the effect of MO on employee-related outcomes. Competing models offering alternative explanations are ruled out empirically by the superior fit of the theoretical model with the data. The study integrates IMO in Kohli and Jaworski’s model of antecedent and consequences of MO and encourages practitioners to embed IMO in their MO development plans.     

Cultural interpretations of destructive acts and trust in Japanese supply channel relationships

This paper investigates the way culture influences Japanese inter-firm exchange processes, arguing that isomorphism (e.g., due to macro-force flux and convergence) is eroding traditional Japanese management practices and increasing heterogeneity. The role of culture in the development of routines and relationship capabilities across firm boundaries is particularly important in Japanese firms. Traditional Japanese business values engender confidence in a business partnership's conformity and harmony. However, cultural erosion is shifting Japanese attributions of and responses to destructive acts in channels relationships, which has implications for appraising and sustaining trust and success. Based on a qualitative investigation of Japanese subsidiaries’ supply relationships, our study furnishes academics and practitioners with a set of research propositions on culturally influenced destructive act cognitions and behavioural responses. These provide novel insights into the modern face and unfulfilled promise of inter-firm relationships with the Japanese.     

(S)training experiences: Toward understanding decreases in entrepreneurial self-efficacy during action-oriented entrepreneurship training

While most participants benefit from action-oriented entrepreneurship training, such programs can paradoxically also have negative effects. Training programs in which participants actively engage in entrepreneurship involve facing problems that might be too difficult to overcome, potentially decreasing trainees' entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Based on theories of self-regulation, we argue that error mastery orientation is a factor that explains under which condition problems do or do not lead to decreases in entrepreneurial self-efficacy during training. To test our model, we conducted a 12-week action-oriented training program and applied a longitudinal design with one baseline measurement, seven measurements during training, and one measurement after training. Analyses based on 415 lagged observations from 109 training participants indicated that participants with low error mastery orientation experienced decreases in entrepreneurial self-efficacy during training when facing problems. In contrast, participants high in error mastery orientation could buffer the negative effects of problems on entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Our results suggest that error mastery orientation is a critical factor to understand why participants' episodic experiences of problems during training negatively influence their entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Shedding light on these self-regulatory factors advances the understanding of the potential dark side of action-oriented entrepreneurship training.     

Competitive channel relationship management: When resellers establish competing manufacturer relationships

The focus of this study is the impact of competitive relationships on the effectiveness of channel relationship management strategies. We argue that the characteristics of a reseller??s relationship with alternative manufacturers influence his/her evaluation of the relationship with a focal manufacturer. We extend previous research by suggesting that the relative levels of channel conflict and information exchange are critical determinants of relationship outcomes. Building on previous literature on customer satisfaction, we argue that this relation is asymmetric; improvements in the levels of channel conflict and information exchange will have a greater effect when these are below the competitor??s comparative level than when these are above. We find support for these hypotheses in a sample of 491 observations corresponding to different resellers selling a manufacturer??s product line across several countries. Our results underscore the need for suppliers to go beyond conflict minimization and information exchange policies across relationships and consider individual-level competitive effects for each relationship.     

Toward an understanding of ethical climate: Its relationship to ethical behavior and supervisory influence

In recent years, theoretical and empirical developments in the area of organizational climate has provided the impetus for research concerning ethical climate. According to this latter research, ethical climate is a multi-dimensional construct which is manifested in organizations. Studies, however, have not focused on the relationship between ethical climate and ethical behavior. Furthermore, an enhanced understanding of the multi-dimensionality of ethical climate will likely advance what we know about organizational climate and culture in general. We propose further examination of ethical climate by: (1) showing the conceptual relationship between ethical climate and ethical (or unethical) behavior in organizations; and (2) examining supervision as one of the principle influences on ethical climate and concomitant subordinate behavior. Finally, we explore the implications for future research on ethical climate.James C. Wimbush is Assistant Professor of Business Administration in the Department of Management at Indiana University, Bloomington. His current research is about ethical issues in human resources management.Jon M. Shepard is Head of the Department of Management at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. His most recent publications include Egoistic and Ethical Orientations of University Students Toward Work-Related Decisions (Journal of Business Ethics). His current research interests include ethical climate and the accountability of institutions.     

Marketing channel relationships in China: A review and integration with an institution-based perspective

Because marketing channel research is predominantly conducted in the Western world, marketing channel theories and practices may not be generalizable to Chinese markets. Despite the rapid growth of Chinese economies and their increasing importance to the global economy, our understanding of marketing channels in China is limited. This research reviews and integrates studies of marketing channels in the Chinese context. From an institution-based perspective, we develop a set of propositions focusing on issues such as guanxi, trust and dependence. We explore the impact of Chinese institutional environments (regulatory, normative and cultural) on marketing channels. Lastly, we offer suggestions to help firms adapt their channel operations to Chinese markets.     

Toward an encompassing theory of business marketing relationships (BMRS) and interpersonal commercial relationships (ICRS): An empirical generalization

This paper explores business marketing relationships (BMRs) and interpersonal commercial relationships (ICRs). The literature in these two areas is analyzed to develop an overarching theoretical understanding of how marketing relationships function in the marketplace. The authors create empirical generalizations by analyzing the interrelationships among constructs that researchers have studied in a variety of operationalizations and settings during the past decade. This analysis is used to build a conceptual model for marketing relationships as they are studied in BMRs and ICRs. The authors then compare the models in order to develop a higher-level conceptual understanding of relational phenomena.