Utilization of family-friendly policies in Hong Kong

Employees in Hong Kong, like those in many other industrialized societies, face the competing demands of work and family. Long working hours and the associated problem of work–family conflict is a serious problem for the workforce. Although a number of family-friendly policies, such as the five-day working week, paternal leave and so on, have been introduced, they are not necessarily used to their fullest extent. This paper examines the utilization of family-friendly incentives using a telephone survey of 661 employees in Hong Kong with access to such measures. Its major strength is the use of a well-established model of health care utilization, the Andersen model, to conceptualize the factors associated with the uptake of family-friendly policies. The results indicate that the Andersen model works very well in this context, and further demonstrate that access to family-friendly policies in Hong Kong is not equitable. The study makes a number of significant contributions to the literature on work–life balance and the uptake of supportive measures, and shows that enabling (such as perceived effectiveness) rather than need factors explain most of the variance in such use.     

Gaps between managers' and employees' perceptions of work–life balance

Research on work–life balance (WLB) practices has increased in recent years. Academics affirm that the implementation of WLB practices helps to achieve better organizational results and improve employee outcomes such as higher satisfaction and commitment, and reduce turnover intentions. However, some authors have argued that there are differences between the availability of WLB practices in companies and employees' perceptions of access to such practices. The literature on the differences in perceptions between managers and employees in relation to WLB and its effects is sparse. Using two samples of 229 managers and 511 employees from the same firms, we in this paper contribute to our knowledge of the existence of the perception gaps between managers and employees and their influence on the take-up of WLB. Implications for academics and practitioners are discussed.     

The ‘expat factor’: the influence of working time on women's decisions to undertake international assignments in the oil and gas industry

This article examines the effect of working time on women's willingness to go on expatriate assignments in the oil and gas exploration and production sector. The research draws upon an analysis of two case study firms' international assignment and working time policies, semi-structured interviews with 14 human resource staff responsible for policy design and implementation, and a survey of the views of 71 women expatriates, supported by in-depth interviews with 26 of the survey respondents. The research identifies an ‘expat factor’: assignees state that long hours are inherent in expatriation and necessary to further their careers. However, in practice, working time is not excessive and flexible working practices are utilised. Hours of work have little effect on women's decisions to undertake long-term assignments but alternatives such as short-term and commuter assignments are unpopular as their working patterns are disruptive to family life. This article contributes to theory development by linking two discrete frameworks that explain women's career choices when they strive to balance their career goals with their families and by identifying a career compromise threshold when expatriation is rejected in favour of family considerations. A model is proposed to link working time/patterns to women's international assignment participation.     

Work–family enrichment and satisfaction: the mediating role of self-efficacy and work–life balance

Although the direct effects of work–family enrichment on satisfaction are well-documented, previous theoretical predictions and empirical findings of the relationship have been inconsistent. Drawing on social cognitive theory, the current research examined how work–family enrichment contributes to job and family satisfaction by exploring the mediating mechanisms of self-efficacy and work–life balance. This study also empirically validated a new self-efficacy measure using the work–life interface nomological network. A heterogeneous sample of Australian employees (N = 234) from four different organisations responded to two waves of data collection separated by a 12-month interval. Using structural equation modelling, the results of the statistical analysis provided preliminary support for the hypothesised chain mediation model and the newly developed five-item self-efficacy to regulate work and life scale. Specifically, work-to-family enrichment and family-to-work enrichment were positively related to self-efficacy, which in turn had a positive effect on work–life balance. Similarly, work–life balance had a positive impact on job and family satisfaction. Evidence of these relationships over time was demonstrated, thereby emphasising the importance of person–cognitive resources (e.g. self-efficacy) in influencing life outcomes. Validation of the self-efficacy scale also demonstrated robust psychometric properties and criterion validity. Implications of these results were subsequently discussed.     

Family-friendly policies in the workplace and their effect on work–life conflicts in Hong Kong

As in many other big cities, employees in Hong Kong face competing demands from their work and family and are under a tremendous conflict between work and life. Recently, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government has put a lot of effort into promoting family-friendly policies, but the availability and effectiveness of these policies are largely unknown. The social distribution of work–life conflicts across social status and the dimensions of stratification in Hong Kong have already been documented. This paper examines these issues by way of a telephone survey of over 1000 employees in Hong Kong. We argue that certain groups of workers are particularly vulnerable to work–life conflicts, and target interventions must be devised to address their needs. Moreover, we also suggest that a regulatory approach to implementing family-friendly policies must be undertaken once implementation on a voluntary basis has failed, owing to the low availability of family-friendly policies in the Hong Kong workplace. Lastly, we show the effectiveness of three measures – namely flexible work time, a five-day work week and career breaks – in reducing both work–life conflicts and their negative consequences. We argue that more rigorous randomized intervention must be undertaken to provide more conclusive evidence so as to convince employers to implement these policies in their enterprises.     

Antecedents of work–life involvement in work–life issues: institutional pressures,efficiency gains or both?

This paper contributes to the literature by integrating relevant insights from institutional theory and expected efficiency gains to explain organisational responsiveness to work–life issues. In times of global crisis it seems relevant to explore both the question of whether institutional pressures influence organisational behaviour and the positive and negative consequences implementing work–life practices. We tested the model using survey data from 146 private Spanish firms in two different industries. Hierarchical regression analyses tested the relationship between institutional pressures and organisational responsiveness and the potential moderator effect of the expected efficiency gains. The results reveal that mimetic and particular normative pressures significantly influence work–life practices, while coercive and global normative pressures appear not to do so. The perception of certain negative consequences related to the implementation of work–life practices inhibits this responsiveness. The positive outcomes are only relevant for the moderating effect they have on the relationship between institutional pressures and work–life responsiveness.     

Predictors of flexible working arrangement provision in small and medium enterprises (SMEs)

SMEs comprise 99.7% of all private sector businesses in Australia and employ 70% of the private sector workforce. They are therefore important to policies on flexible work arrangements (FWAs). The provision of FWAs has been found to usually contribute positively to employee well-being and business performance. However, the majority of studies focus on large firms and it is unclear whether these associations apply equally to SMEs. Using data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics Business Longitudinal database for 2007–2011(n = 2788), this study investigates the extent to which factors such as firm size, industry sector, terms of employment, employees’ skills and use of the internet at work affect the provision of FWAs in SMEs. The findings show that smaller businesses are constrained by resources to provide FWAs, but do so in pursuit of industry norms and/or as a result of the profile of their employees. It is also easier to provide FWAs in certain industries than in others and use of the internet facilitates the provision of FWAs.     

Employee work–life balance outcomes in Ireland: a multilevel investigation of supervisory support and perceived organizational support

This article examines how employee perceptions of supervisory and organizational support for work–life balance, in addition to the number of work–life balance programmes available, predict a number of work–life balance outcomes including role conflict, job satisfaction, family satisfaction and turnover intentions in a sample of large private and public sector organizations in Ireland. The attitudes of HR managers towards work–life balance programmes are also explored. To account for the nested structure of the data, analyses were conducted using hierarchical linear modelling. We found that perceptions of work–life supportiveness as measured at the HR manager and immediate supervisor levels affect employee uptake of work–life programmes, employee work–life balance outcomes and turnover intentions.     

Testing a new measure of work–life balance: a study of parent and non-parent employees from New Zealand

The present study extends the established theoretical lenses for understanding the work–family interface beyond conflict and enrichment, suggesting role balance as a theory for understanding how balance among roles can be beneficial for employees. The present study develops a measure of work–life balance and tests whether work–life balance is beneficial beyond conflict and enrichment for all employees. Two employee studies were conducted on (1) 609 parents and (2) 708 non-parents, and structural equation modeling confirmed that the balance dimension was distinct from other work–life dimensions and outcomes, and the analysis of multiple models showed that work–life balance plays a significant indirect mediation effect between conflict and enrichment toward outcomes. Overall, work–life balance was important and broadly identical for both samples with consistent effects toward job and life satisfaction, and psychological outcomes, with work–life conflict being detrimental, work–life enrichment beneficial and work–life balance providing additional benefits, especially toward life satisfaction. The findings provide greater generalizability and highlight the importance of balance for all employees, especially those typically excluded in the work–family literature such as single and childless employees.     

Flexibility bites back: the multiple and hidden costs of flexible employment policies

Flexible labour markets are increasingly regarded as the answer to a wide spectrum of labour market and societal challenges from creating jobs to reducing segmentation and welfare dependency, improving public finances and supporting workforce diversity and innovation. The contention is that, contrary to these claims, flexible labour markets generate fundamental contradictions and unsustainable long‐term trends. The jobs miracle is exaggerated and based on low productivity jobs, outsiders often lose most from competition, claimants must work flexibly but still secure a full‐time wage, low‐wage employment is shrinking the fiscal base, jobs are not being adjusted to accommodate workers' changing needs and capacities and the disposable labour model is undermining long‐term productivity.     

Responses to work intensification: does generation matter?

Work intensification can be an organisational tool to increase the productivity of an existing workforce. We investigate employee reactions to three levels of sustained extensive work intensification (long work hours over two consecutive time periods) of the two most prevalent generational groups in the labour market: Generation X and Baby Boomers. Boomers have been characterised as ‘workaholics’ who ‘live to work’, while Gen Xers are ‘slackers’ who ‘work to live’. We investigate, using a nationally representative sample of employees, whether these generational differences in work attitudes impact employee reactions (measured by employee reports of job satisfaction and work–life balance) to sustained extensive work intensification. The results show that perceptions of job satisfaction and work–life balance are reduced by sustained extensive work intensification but the differences between the two generations are minimal, suggesting that organisations do not need to tailor their employment practices to fit the work values of different generations.     

Developmental network structure and support: gendered consequences for work–family strain and work–parenting strain in the Australian mining industry

Developmental networks enhance career success through the support received by the protégé via the network structure. This paper extends developmental network research by exploring the extent to which strain is associated with developmental network structure and support in the Australian mining industry, a highly volatile and unique context. Our research tests the popular notion of ‘the more support you get, the better’ which is in need of further exploration in the developmental networks literature particularly in specific work contexts with strain (vs. success variables) as outcomes. Results indicate that bigger, broader networks with more career, psychosocial and role modelling support are not always beneficial for protégés in this context. A smaller network with a broader range of developers is associated with reduced work–parenting strain, but not work–family strain. Increased career support reduced work–family strain, but this was not the case for increased psychosocial support and role modelling support. Further, gender moderated the relationship between psychosocial support and work–family strain possibly due to token group effects.     

Work–life balance: a longitudinal evaluation of a new measure across Australia and New Zealand workers

The work–life balance literature has recently identified the need for construct refinement. In response to these discussions, this research describes the development and validation of a concise measure of work–life balance, based on individuals' subjective perceptions of balance between their work and other aspects of their lives. The structure, reliability and validity of this unidimensional, four-item measure was confirmed in four independent heterogeneous samples of workers employed in Australia and New Zealand (N = 6983). Work–life balance was negatively associated with work demands, turnover intentions and psychological strain, and positively associated with both family and job satisfaction, confirming the research hypotheses. Evidence of these relationships over time was also demonstrated. This research confirms that this new measure of work–life balance demonstrates robust psychometric properties and predicts relevant criterion variables.     

Predictors and processes of satisfaction with work–family balance: Examining the role of personal,work, and family resources and conflict and enrichment

Drawing from resource-based theories, we conduct two studies to investigate the unique and relative importance of personal (e.g., resilience, proactive health behaviors), work, and family resources (i.e., enriched job and family roles, work and family support) to balance satisfaction, and the mediating roles of conflict and enrichment. We test our hypotheses in Study 1 using a cross-sectional survey of 216 employees and in Study 2 using a time-lagged survey over 3 months with 220 employees. Across both studies, work and family resources (e.g., enriched job and family characteristics, work and family support) were positively related to balance satisfaction. In general, work resources were more relevant to balance satisfaction than were personal or family resources. In terms of processes, work resources relate to less work-to-family conflict and greater work-to-family enrichment which in turn, relate to greater balance. In contrast, the family-to-work directions of conflict and enrichment were just weakly related to balance. Across the two studies, findings regarding the role of personal resources were mixed. We discuss how these findings expand our understanding of work–family balance and the practical implications for human resource practitioners.     

An insider's point of view: how a system of flexible working hours helps employees to strike a proper balance between work and personal life

Increasing numbers of organisations offer flexible working hours to help employees balance work and personal life. However, studies about the effects of flexible working hours on work–life balance and organisational outcomes are ambiguous. The aim of this study is to gain greater insights into how employees experience the influence of flexible working hours on their work–life balance. A qualitative research was performed by in-depth interviews with a variant sample of 15 employees and thematic analysis of the data. The more family responsibilities the respondents have, the more they tend to perceive flexible working hours as a necessity rather than an extra benefit. According to the interviewees, the system creates a situation which is advantageous for both employer and employee. The extent to which this is achieved though depends on how organisations apply and implement it. It is concluded that when flexible working hours are supported by management and fit the work culture, they are highly appreciated both for private and work-related reasons. Moreover, its meaning for the private life varies according to life stage. Findings are important for policy makers and human resources managers alike in order to implement and deal with flexible working hours effectively. Consequently, this will help employees strike a proper balance between work and personal life generating beneficial organisational outcomes.     

Uptake of organisational work–life balance opportunities: the context of support

This research examines the relationship between structural and cultural dimensions affecting managerial decision-making about work–life balance (WLB) opportunities. Through a top-down study of two contrasting Irish organisations, we identify how each of five dimensions of work–life culture: ‘managerial and organisational support’, ‘organisational time expectations’, ‘career consequences’, ‘gendered perception of policy use’ and ‘co-worker support’ are mediated through managers to affect availability and uptake of WLB opportunities and creating gaps between policy and practice. This study demonstrates how marked distinctions between the personal opportunities managers may wish to offer and the discretion available to them arise. Secondly, the concept of organisational work–life culture is advanced by elaborating the ‘context of support’, namely interdependencies between organisational culture and structure that affect the uptake of WLB opportunities. Implications for researchers and practitioners are also discussed.     

Explaining organizational responsiveness to work‐life balance issues: The role of business strategy and high‐performance work systems

This article applies new insights into business strategies and high‐performance work systems (HPWSs) to examine why organizations adopt work‐life balance programs (WLBPs). Results indicate that a product leadership business strategy is positively related to the likelihood of adopting WLBPs, whereas a cost leadership business strategy is negatively related to the adoption of these programs. Moreover, our analyses establish a mediating role of HPWSs in the relationship between business strategies and the adoption of WLBPs. Our results also demonstrate that different industries vary in adoption of work‐life balance programs. This supports the institutional theory of organizational responsiveness to work‐life balance issues. We tested our hypotheses with two waves of the nationally representative Canadian Workplace and Employee Survey. Implications and specific suggestions for human resource practitioners are discussed. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effects of work–family and family–work conflicts on flexible work arrangements demand: a gender role perspective

In recent years, a growing number of firms have adopted flexible work arrangements (FWAs) to help managers balance their work–family demands. Based on a sample of 1336 married managers in Korea, we found that work–family conflict increased the FWAs demand more for female managers than for male managers. When facing work–family conflict, the absence of family-supportive supervision increased the demand for FWAs, particularly among female managers. No such effect was found for family–work conflict. In addition, having a female supervisor led to an increased demand for FWAs from company managers. These results suggest that firms should pay close attention to gender difference and supervisory roles in predicting the demand for FWAs to alleviate work–family conflicts.     

Accommodating Employees With and Without Disabilities

Efforts to recruit and retain employees with disabilities are often tempered by employers’ concerns over potential workplace accommodation costs. This study reports on accommodations requested and granted in intensive case studies of eight companies, based on more than 5,000 employee and manager surveys, and interviews and focus groups with 128 managers and employees with disabilities. Two unique contributions are that we analyze accommodations for employees without disabilities as well as for those with disabilities, and compare perspectives on accommodation costs and benefits among employees, their coworkers, and their managers. We find people with disabilities are more likely than those without disabilities to request accommodations, but the types of accommodations requested and the reported costs and benefits are similar for disability and non‐disability accommodations. In particular, fears of high accommodation costs and negative reactions of coworkers are not realized; all groups tend to report generally positive coworker reactions. Multilevel models indicate granting accommodations has positive spillover effects on attitudes of coworkers, as well as a positive effect on attitudes of requesting employees, but only when coworkers are supportive. Consistent with recent theorizing and other studies, our results suggest the benefits from a corporate culture of flexibility and attention to the individualized needs of employees. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

“工学结合”模式下模具设计与制造专业课程体系的构建

本文通过模具设计与制造专业引入"打工实习"教学项目和开发"工学结合"课程为构建新教学体系的两大基石。论述了学习内容工作化是工学结合模式的核心价值。