Super Bowl ad likeability: Enduring and emerging predictors

US advertisers love the Super Bowl because it reaches a huge and highly receptive audience. One metric that Super Bowl advertisers watch closely is ad likeability as this is correlated with sales success. Tomkovick, Yelkur, and Christians (2001, Journal of Marketing Communications 7: 89–108) studied ad likeability for Super Bowl ads in the 1990s. In this paper, we replicate and extend their research using USA Today's measurement of Super Bowl ad likeability in the decade of the 2000s as our dependent variable of interest. Our findings on 438 Super Bowl ads show that humor, animals, and product category were enduring predictors of ad likeability. Product information and the presence of children in Super Bowl ads were found to be emerging predictors of ad likeability. Most notably, the amount of product information provided in Super Bowl commercials was inversely related to ad likeability. Implications for advertisers are presented, as are conclusions, study limitations and directions for future research.     

Evaluative and factual ad claims,knowledge level,and making inferences

A lab study examined the effect of type of ad claim (factual versus evaluative) and knowledge level on subjects' product feature inference making from three camera ads. Each ad had some missing brand information. The results showed that as knowledge increased, so did inference making. Also, there was a significant interaction between ad claim and knowledge. Inference making was positively correlated with knowledge level for factual ads but not for evaluative ones. Finally, subjects made very few inferences to fill in missing ad features but instead did more interpretive processing.     

Disentangling location-based advertising: the effects of location congruency and medium type on consumers' ad attention and brand choice

Research on location-based advertising (LBA) suggests that the merits of LBA lie in the fact that consumers can be targeted with location-congruent ads on their personal mobile devices. However, LBA consists of two underlying constructs: a mobile (vs. point-of-sales) advertising medium and location congruency (vs. location incongruency). This study aims to disentangle these underlying constructs by showing that they differentially affect the efficacy of an ad. Using a virtual reality lab experiment, this study shows that location-congruent ads result in increased choice for the target brand as compared to location-incongruent ads, independent of medium type. However, in location-incongruent situations, mobile ads attracted more attention than point-of-sales display ads. The advantages of LBA thus do not seem to emanate from medium type, but rather from the congruency between the ad and product location. When the ad is received at a different location than the product, the mobile medium is able to enhance consumers' ad attention.     

The role of medium content and ad format congruity in influencing advertising outcomes

This study examines how (in)congruence regarding the format of the ad and the context in which the ad is placed influences ad recognition, perceived advertiser sensitivity, ad comprehension, and persuasion. Highly visual or informational ads were placed congruently or incongruently within a(n) highly visual or informational surrounding context. There was some positive support for mismatching the format of the ad and surrounding context in terms of ad recognition. Specifically, a highly visual ad placed within a highly informational setting resulted in the greatest ad recognition. However, in terms of the audience's perceptions of advertiser sensitivity, subjective ad comprehension, and ad persuasion, there was more positive support for matching the format of the ad with that of the surrounding context. In this regard, it is better to place visual ads congruently within visual contexts. Theories from information processing and hemispheric lateralization are drawn on to support this research.     

Health-related ad information and health motivation effects on product evaluations

This study tests the effect of health-related ad information on perceived product healthfulness and purchase intention. Also, the study investigates whether consumers' health motivation moderates the effects, because of the way health motivation affects processing of health-related information in ads. Three types of health-related ad elements are distinguished: functional claims, process claims and health imagery. These elements were combined in mock ads and an online experiment was run to test the study hypotheses. Results show that health imagery has the largest impact on consumers' product evaluations, while functional claims and process claims have much smaller effects. Health motivation shows significant interaction with process claims on product evaluations.     

Ads promoting OTC medications: The effect of ad format and credibility on beliefs, attitudes, and purchase intentions

This investigation explores the effects of ad credibility and ad format (direct comparative vs. noncomparative) on consumers' beliefs, attitudes, and purchase intentions for over-the-counter (OTC) medications. It is hypothesized that ad credibility moderates the effects of ad format. To test the hypotheses three different experiments were conducted, with each one using a different method to manipulate ad credibility (multiple explanations for claimed superiority, claim substantiation, and approval of ad information from the Federal Trade Commission). The results of the three studies provide consistent support for the main effects of ad credibility and ad format. Increased persuasion was evidenced with higher credibility ads and with direct comparative ads. However, the hypothesized interaction consistently was not supported. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

The role of respect in the effects of perceived ad interactivity and intrusiveness on brand and site

This paper examines the interrelated effects of respect, ad intrusiveness, and ad interactivity on attitudes toward brands and the publishers that serve online advertisements. Despite widespread use of the term, respect has received almost no attention in the advertising literature. A structural equations model indicates that ad formats that are perceived as respectful to viewers result in more favorable attitudes toward both the brand and publisher site. Ad intrusiveness negatively affects respect, while interactivity has a positive influence. Respect is demonstrated to exhibit a partial mediating role in the effect of these two variables on brand and site. Results also suggest that advertisers should strive for greater interactivity in ads if their objective is branding rather than direct response, as this can minimize the negative influence of intrusiveness. Publishers can also benefit from these kinds of ads.     

Cause-related marketing ads in the eye tracker: it depends on how you present,who sees the ad,and what you promote

We compare the effectiveness of three visual types of cause-related marketing ads (product-oriented vs. cause-focused with an image of the beneficiary's face- vs. cause-focused with an image of the social cause), along with two moderators: product type and gender differences. In Study 1, the results of an eye-tracking experiment show that a product-oriented ad leads to a longer fixation duration than does a cause-focused ad. Females process the ads faster than do males, regardless of visual type. A cause-focused ad for a hedonic product results in a shorter fixation duration when an image of the beneficiary's face is used than when an image of the social cause is used. The opposite results are observed for a utilitarian product. Gender differences enhance such differences in ad processing. Study 2 is conducted to validate the arguments for the hypotheses proposed in Study 1. We find that using a cause-focused image vs. a product-oriented image impacts the effectiveness of the ad since consumers process these different visual types of ads differently.     

Creating an effective code-switched ad for monolinguals: the influence of brand origin and foreign language familiarity

This study investigates the influence of brand origin and foreign language familiarity in code-switched (CS) ad effectiveness for monolingual consumers. CS ads refer to ads containing foreign words or phrases in an advertising copy (e.g., headline and slogan), resulting in a mixture of native and foreign languages. In this research, we conducted a pilot study to show the increasing trend of using code-switching in ads, regardless of whether the brands are local or foreign, in a monolingual market. We further examine if the effectiveness of CS ads is contingent on the brand origin among monolinguals. Study 1 showed that non-CS ads were perceived more favorably than CS ads for advertising a local brand. However, not all of the CS ads were perceived more favorably than non-CS ads when a foreign brand was advertized. The results of Study 2 showed that when a foreign brand was advertized, CS ads using a high-exposure foreign language were evaluated more favorably than CS ads using a low-exposure foreign language. Foreign language familiarity played a mediating role in the observed effects. We provide evidence that the research findings on CS ads among bilinguals cannot be applied to monolinguals. We discuss implications for international marketing and suggest advertising strategies for practitioners.     

Exploring the role of memory for self‐selected ad experiences: Are some advertising media better liked than others?

Advertising media are associated with different degrees of self‐selected versus intrusive ad experiences. The role of such media differences in attitudes toward advertising was explored in a nationwide survey. The survey provides a national picture of attitudes toward specific ad media ranging from advertising media that deliver highly self‐selected ad experiences (catalogs and business classifieds) to highly intrusive ones (TV). A total of 2,514 adults were surveyed regarding their opinions about ads in (1) TV, (2) radio, (3) catalogs, (4) business classifieds, (5) out‐of‐home, or (6) advertising in general. Media that allow for self‐selected experiences, where perceived interest in an ad is the basis for attention to it, were evaluated much more favorably than more intrusive advertising media. Catalogs and business classifieds elicited the most favorable opinions; TV advertising elicited the least, and these media differences generally cut across demographic lines. Also, although more educated and affluent consumers generally held less favorable views of advertising, preliminary results suggested that this did not hold true for media that allow for self‐selected processing. An additional study suggested that memory for advertisements plays a significant role in the evaluation of a self‐selected ad medium (catalogs). That is, consumers' strongest memories are for those ads to which they paid the most attention, and consequently these engaging ads have a disproportionate influence on opinions toward the ad medium. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Does competitive clutter in television advertising “interfere” with the recall and recognition of brand names and ad claims?

This paper contrasts the effects of competitive clutter on the recall and recognition of information from ads for familiar brands. An experiment was conducted utilizing ads for the type of relatively familiar brands typically advertised on network television; the dependent variables were recall and recognition of brand names and ad claims. Results showed that brand name recall scores were substantially reduced by competitive clutter. However, exposure to competitors' ads had little effect on ad claim recall. These data are consistent with the view that information about familiar brands will tend to be compartmentalized in memory, reducing interference effects in attribute recall. Exposure to competitive clutter had relatively little effect on recognition task performance. Suggestions for future advertising research considering competitive interference and brand familiarity issues are provided.The authors thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their guidance. Ray Burke. Frank Kardes, James Kellaris, Karen Machleit, Joe Mandese, and Don Schumsky provided helpful comments on various aspects of this research.     

Twentieth century female ad images: Cultural interconnections,social learning,and the dialectical logic of advertising

The study conducts a historical investigation of the linkages among the focused social learning of a few (such as ideas of feminists groups), the amplification of those ideas throughout the masses, and observable female images in ads. The Hegelian sublation or Aufgehoben dialectical framework is applied to deepen understanding of how ad strategies have reconciled multiple cultural conversations about the proper image and role of women through the years. The findings of the research reveal distinctive dialectical processes and strategies in the ever-evolving patterns of female images in ads. The results of the study indicate that the focused social learning of the few is amplified to the masses through more emergent ad female roles and images during prosperous and peaceful times and is thwarted during times of national distress.     

The effect of media,product and message factors on ad persuasiveness: the role of affect and cognition

The effects of media, product and advertising strategy variables on consumers' thoughts and feelings are investigated. Both direct and indirect paths from the advertising variables to ad persuasiveness measures are also analysed with the indirect paths leading through affective and cognitive responses. Two hundred and forty television and magazine ads are analysed with respect to advertising variables, affect, cognition and ad persuasiveness. Results indicate that advertising variables are indirectly linked to ad persuasiveness with the indirect path occurring through affective and cognitive responses.     

Do you want me to watch this ad on social media?: The effects of norms on online video ad watching

This study examines the influences of norms on consumers’ intentions to watch online video ads on social media. The social norms approach and the theory of reasoned action (TRA) were adopted as theoretical frameworks. In addition, the effects of interpersonal and social influences on the three personal-level norms were examined as the antecedents of normative perceptions. To test the hypothesized model, an online survey was conducted with 313 undergraduate students. A confirmatory factor analysis was used to validate the measurement constructs of the model, and a structural equation modeling was used to identify the relationships among constructs in the model. Findings indicate that personal injunctive norms and subjective norms were positively related to consumers’ intention to watch online video ads. Interpersonal and social influences were positively related to three normative perceptions regarding online video ad watching. The findings of this study contribute to the research stream on social norms approach and TRA and provide practical implications for advertising and marketing practitioners.     

Effects of comparative advertising format on consumer responses: The moderating effects of brand image and attribute relevance

In this research we distinguish between ads that compare two different brands (Across-Brand Comparison or ABC ads) and those that compare different versions of the same brand (Within-Brand Comparison or WBC ads). Results from an experiment indicate that when comparative ads use attributes that are relevant to product performance, ad type and brand image interact such that an ABC ad leads to less favorable consumer perceptions than a WBC ad when image of the sponsor brand is low but not when it is high. However, when the ads use attributes that are irrelevant to product performance an ABC ad leads to less favorable consumer outcomes than a WBC ad, regardless of the image of the sponsor brand. We further propose and show that ad believability mediates these effects. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed and directions for future research are provided.     

Do You Recognize Its Brand? The Effectiveness of Online In-Stream Video Advertisements

The effects of ad length, ad position, and ad-context congruity on brand name recognition in an online in-stream video advertising context were investigated. Video ads and video programs were selected from YouTube as stimuli. Findings from a laboratory experiment indicate that long ads enhance recognition. Mid-roll ads lead to better brand name recognition than pre-roll and post-roll ads because of attention spillover. However, a mid-roll ad is futile when the ad is unrelated to the video content. In contrast, post-roll ads can improve brand name recognition in an incongruent context.     

Why do I identify with thee? Let me count three ways: How ad context influences race‐based character identification

Three quasi‐experimental studies with nonstudent samples reveal that one's ability to identify with a character shown in an ad based on shared race depends on the construction of the ad and the context in which characters are depicted. Results show that race‐based identification overshadows both gender‐ and role‐based identification for a racially targeted ad for distinctive black subjects but occurs for both black and white subjects for a culturally ambiguous ad. Further, results show that race‐based character identification is absent when black and white characters are depicted in a mainstream inclusive ad and that dominant cultural norms predominate. Theoretical and managerial implications regarding the contextuality of race‐based identification, processing of source cues, and construction of ads in a pluralistic society are discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Role of variability in cultural dimensions across generations in the context of CSR advertising in an East Asian market

The study examines how, across generations, Korean consumers perceive corporate social responsibility (CSR) ads when various ad appeals (help-self vs. help-other) are employed. The findings show that younger consumers have bicultural orientations compared to older consumers who have collectivistic cultural orientations. The findings showed that younger consumers were more likely to form favourable attitudes toward CSR ads and products when they viewed help-other ad appeals over help-self ad appeals compared to older consumers. Furthermore, the study revealed that variability in biculturalism plays a significant role in viewing CSR ads with help-self ad appeals. Further managerial implications and future study ideas are discussed.     

A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: How Humanized,Retargeted Ads Intrude in Social Contexts

A great deal of past work has demonstrated that ads that “fit” or blend into their context evoke favorable responses because consumers perceive such ads as less intrusive. The current work posits that when aspects of the ad make persuasive intent salient—such as exposure to retargeted ads, which are generated based on consumers' past online browsing behavior—this relationship reverses such that fit between an ad and its context elicits higher perceptions of intrusiveness. Specifically, ads that present ad copy in a conversational style “fit” with a social media context on the dimension of social presence. Across three studies, we show that retargeted ads that “fit” the context on the dimension of social presence evoke higher levels of perceived intrusiveness, which, in turn, influence downstream responses such as attitudes toward the ad.     

Interaction Effect of Ad Puffery and Ad Skepticism on Consumer Persuasion

ABSTRACT

A 2 × 2 experiment was conducted to test the interaction effects of ad puffery and consumer ad skepticism on consumer persuasion using print ads for jeans. High ad skeptics (i.e., those more skeptical of ads) held a more positive attitude toward the ad than low ad skeptics (i.e., those less skeptical of ads) when a puffed (i.e., exaggerated) ad was viewed. Conversely, low ad skeptics had greater purchase intentions than high ad skeptics when a nonpuffed (i.e., nonexaggerated) ad was viewed.