Lao Tourism and Poverty Alleviation: Community-Based Tourism and the Private Sector

Tourism as a tool for development was first mooted in the 1970s. Recently, focus has been on the role of ecotourism, pro-poor tourism and community-based tourism (CBT). This has been so in Lao People's Democratic Republic, where international tourism is a vital source of foreign exchange and employment and an important feature of the government's poverty-alleviation strategy. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) finances many infrastructural projects facilitating tourist movement in the Lower Mekong Basin, and with the Lao Government and the Netherlands Development Agency (SNV) is a key player in donor-assisted, community-based tourism (DACBT). The development of DACBT in Lao PDR is discussed in some detail, especially the Nam Ha Ecotourism Project, and is compared briefly with the role of the private sector in tourism development in Southern Lao PDR. It is concluded that while DACBT projects can indeed alleviate poverty and develop financial and cultural capital, private sector tourism enterprises also have an important role in poverty alleviation, and it should not be assumed that DACBT is the only – or necessarily the most efficient – form of pro-poor tourism.     

Growth Versus Equity: The Continuum of Pro-Poor Tourism and Neoliberal Governance

This paper proposes a model which integrates tourism in a continuum of poverty alleviation strategies within the antipodes of neo-liberalism and protectionism. It is argued that despite growing evidence in favour of regulative and (re)distributive approaches that in practice come closer to protectionism than neoliberalism, the most influential international organisations, as well as governments worldwide, follow a largely neoliberal laissez-faire approach to poverty alleviation coupled with market-friendly ‘pro-poor’ supplements. This paper argues that tourism per se fits very well into neoliberal interpretations of poverty alleviation, while it tends to aggravate poverty-enhancing inequalities if allowed to operate in a free market environment. Drawing on evidence from current research into poverty alleviation, it is argued that in order to be pro-poor, growth must deliver disproportionate benefits to the poor to reduce inequalities which have been found to limit the potential for poverty alleviation. Hence, it is necessary to shift policy focus from growth to equity, which calls for strong institutions capable of regulating the tourism industry and distributing assets in order to facilitate ‘pro-poor growth’. In this respect, this paper challenges the conventional pro-poor tourism approach with its implicit growth-bias, where strategies are judged as pro-poor if they deliver net benefits to ‘the poor’ even if ‘the rich’ benefit disproportionately. However, through a contextualisation with the reality of politico-economic governance, this paper shows that strategies enhancing equity through shifting benefits towards the poor and, importantly, the poorest, are unlikely to be pursued in practice given policy-makers' neoliberal bias and systemic constraints. Hence, only strategies that are largely in sync with a neoliberal ideology and the ‘World Bank orthodoxy’, such as industry self-regulation or government incentives, have much potential to be implemented on a large-scale basis. More radical approaches such as pro-poor regulation and distribution – the equity side of the continuum – are bound to remain predominantly rhetoric of some United Nations organisations.     

Tourism yield measures for Cambodia

This paper develops new measures of tourism yield in the context of Cambodia, a developing country in South East Asia. It first sets out some data regarding tourism in Cambodia and the reasons for tourism being identified as a tool for economic development and poverty alleviation. It then sets out the method and findings of a study by the International Finance Corporation-Mekong Private Sector Development Facility to develop standard and extended measures of tourism yield to assess the pro-poor impact of international tourism in Cambodia. These yield measures extend earlier work undertaken by the first author. It then discusses the policy implications of the findings. It is concluded that while tourism goes some way in reducing poverty in Cambodia, informed policy initiatives can enhance the effect. It is argued that different visitor yield measures provide an important basis for the development of strategies to increase tourism's pro-poor impact. A substantial barrier to the formulation of appropriate policies to increase the pro-poor benefits of Cambodia arises from the limited data available in poor countries generally.     

Tourism as a Tool for Poverty Alleviation: A Critical Analysis of ‘Pro-Poor Tourism’ and Implications for Sustainability

Forecasts of high tourism growth in developing nations, where widespread poverty exists, has led to considerable interest in tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation. Powerful bureaucratic and business alliances have been forged to expand this programme. International development agencies are also turning to tourism as a way of alleviating poverty. This is sometimes termed ‘pro-poor tourism’ (PPT). Distinguished from other forms of ‘alternative tourisms’ such as ecotourism and community-based tourism, the stakeholders involved in this enterprise are no less divided. Ideological divisions manifest themselves in the political struggle over how tourism in developing countries should unfold. This paper identifies the different sustainability positions of prominent pro-poor tourism stakeholders and considers the implications for meeting pro-poor and sustainability objectives. Generally, tourism is too often regarded a panacea without an attendant recognition that, like any other industrial activity, tourism is highly political. As a global industry, tourism operates within a neo-liberal market economy which presents severe challenges to meeting pro-poor and sustainable development objectives. This paper therefore recommends a fundamental re-evaluation of tourism's pro-poor potential in the absence of significant commitment to directly address structural inequities which exacerbate poverty and constrain pro-poor attempts.     

Mitigating Gender Inequality in Rural Regions: The Effects of Tourism Employment in Namibia

We examine the effects of tourism employment on gender inequality in Namibia. We find that tourism contributes to local livelihoods by providing opportunities for cash income through employment, craft sales and shareholder profits from tourism enterprises. In general, male‐headed households are economically better off. Female‐headed households with tourism employment are better off than those without and are as equally well‐off as male‐headed households. We find no significant statistical difference between male‐headed households with tourism employment and those without it. These findings suggest that tourism provides specific advantages for women and helps mitigate gender inequality in areas where tourism employment is available. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nature-Based Tourism and Poverty Alleviation: Impacts of Private Sector and Parastatal Enterprises In and Around Kruger National Park,South Africa

International programmes and national policies around the world have identified tourism as an appropriate mechanism for sustainable development, poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation. To evaluate the impact of nature-based tourism on the poor, socio-economic assessments were undertaken at enterprises based within South African protected areas. Comparisons were made between local economic interventions reported by enterprises and neighbouring community member's perceptions of their initiatives. Socioeconomic impacts evaluated included employment, gender equality, procurement, corporate social responsibility, dependency on tourism and access to markets. The studies demonstrate that isolated efforts from individual tourism companies have little tangible impact on the majority of people living in highly populated rural communities but impacts are substantial for the few people who directly benefit. Implications of these findings for future socio-economic initiatives through tourism, and options to increase net benefits to the poor are explored.     

Excuses,Excuses: Rationalisations of Western Sex Tourists in Thailand

This paper focuses upon the behaviour of heterosexual Western male sex tourists in Thailand. It is based on a review of the sex tourism literature and attempts to analyse the rationalisations that are constructed by these men in order to assuage feelings of guilt that are often felt from participating in Third World sex tourism. Therefore, these rationalisations potentially serve to allow for the continued patronage of Western men in commercial sex in less developed nations and thus perpetuate the sex tourism industry as a whole.     

Corruption and Tourism: An Empirical Investigation in a Non‐linear Framework

This article investigates the effect of corruption on tourism demand for a panel of countries during 1999–2009 by using panel least square and fixed effects regressions. Prior research has considered only the linear effects of corruption on tourism. We examine the relationship between corruption and tourism in a non‐linear framework after controlling for economic and heritage factors. The findings suggest that corruption has a significant effect on tourism demand and that this effect is non‐linear. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring the Implications of Virtual Reality Technology in Tourism Marketing: An Integrated Research Framework

The proliferation of the Internet and other technological innovations has transformed the structure of the tourism industry as well as affected how tourism destinations are perceived and consumed. The 3D virtual world provides opportunities for destination marketing organizations to communicate with targeted markets by offering a rich environment for potential visitors to explore tourism destinations. However, as of yet, there is little understanding about how to effectively market tourism destinations to virtual world participants who are technology users as well as potential consumers. The purpose of the present study is to develop a research framework that integrates the technology acceptance model (TAM) and self‐determination theory to understand how tourists use a 3D virtual world. Primary data were obtained for this study through self‐administered Web questionnaires. The data were conducted in a laboratory setting with 186 participants. This study contributes to the empirical TAM literature by applying the model to a 3D virtual tourism site. Additionally, this study provides a research framework to capture the entertainment nature of a 3D virtual world by extending the TAM to incorporate psychological elements of self‐determination theory to understand consumer experience. From the perspective of tourism professionals, this study contributes to an understanding of how best to construct informative and interactive tourist destinations in 3D virtual worlds to attract potential online and real‐world tourists. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tourism survey research in sub-Saharan Africa: problems and challenges

This paper examines the challenges encountered when conducting tourism-related research in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Using socio-demographic and infrastructure information as a backdrop, aspects of market research and their attendant challenges are examined. Issues of functional equivalence, conceptual equivalence, and translation equivalence are discussed, together with challenges relating to sampling, data collection, and analysis. The paper highlights some critical issues that need to be addressed when conducting consumer tourism-related surveys, in general, and community tourism-related research, in particular, in SSA countries and concludes with a discussion of the ways in which research and data gathering could be improved. Recommendations are offered in the spirit of encouraging consumer tourism-survey research and data gathering in Africa.     

Undiscovered Public Knowledge: The Potential of Research Synthesis Approaches in Tourism Research

Twenty years ago, Donald Swanson coined the term ‘Undiscovered Public Knowledge’ to refer to the product of the synthesis of previous research. In the current climate, in a range of disciplines relevant to tourism research (e.g. policy, management, economics and psychology) there has been an increasing interest in the maximisation and re-use of previous research through a range of research synthesis approaches. This discussion paper considers three such approaches – systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-interpretation – and their actual and potential application in tourism research. The paper contends that the use of such approaches can assist in ensuring that the tourism research enterprise generates cumulative bodies of knowledge built on the full use and exploitation of previous research results.     

Stakeholder Network Integrated Analysis: The Specific Case of Rural Tourism in the Portuguese Peneda‐Gerês National Park

This study addresses the structure, nature and composition of stakeholder networks related to rural tourism in a Portuguese National Park (Peneda‐Gerês National Park). In particular, it examines their interactions along the following dimensions: marketing information (marketing exchanges such as flyers, tourism information and information on specific events), administrative resources (logistic and technical support), human resources (allocation of human resources), training (training of local stakeholders in the area of promotion) and financial resources (financial support). In terms of methodology, it uses both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The analysis of the type and nature of interactions among different stakeholders within a specific rural tourism destination is the main focus of this study. Among these, the marketing information network shows both a high number of connections and high centrality indices, which may indicate that there is a significant share of information about common projects, products and services among stakeholders. In contrast, the training network evidenced the opposite behavior pattern. The study also contributes to a better understanding of how different local stakeholders are positioned in a complex structure of interactions that are critical in providing useful directions to maximize potential opportunities that may contribute to promote rural tourism and local development efficiently. Several limitations and implications are offered in the final section. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social Capital,Tourism and Regional Development: SPCC as a Basis for Innovation and Sustainability

Traditional views of regional development have focused on economic factors and potential innovation in technical and resource exploitation processes. Similarly, regional tourism development is usually couched in economic terms, such as number of jobs and increasing land values. This approach usually ignores the social and community aspects of tourism development; thus an alternative view argues that the community needs to be factored into our planning and development strategies to balance the traditional economic view. It is argued in this paper that fostering innovation in regional development is much more than a process of community consultation. Rather, what needs to be factored in is SPCC – social, political and cultural capital. This works in both directions; tourism development depends on a level of social, political and cultural capital in order to be a successful regional development tool (even in economic terms) while at the same time tourism development can be undertaken in a way that contributes to SPCC in the region. The paper outlines the key concepts of social capital, political capital and cultural capital. It does so within the context of regional tourism development and the concepts of systems of innovation and sustainable development.     

The content of Third World tourism marketing: a 4A approach

Tourism to the Third World continues to grow and, correspondingly, the promotion of these regions is increasingly popular and important. Although some concerns have been voiced about the images contained in Third World tourism marketing, there has been no extensive examination of its content to date. Accordingly, in this study, the verbal and visual components of 115 brochures for 12 Third World countries are analysed. To facilitate a detailed content analysis of these brochures, a ‘4A’ approach is introduced, focusing on attractions (natural and man‐made), actors (hosts and tourists), actions and atmosphere. This comprehensive inventory reveals that Third World countries are clustered into three groups, namely Oriental, sea–sand and frontier. It is shown that by emphasising and stereotyping certain attractions, actors, actions and atmospheres, certain overarching tourism myths are created around Third World destinations. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Research on China's Tourism: A 35‐Year Review and Authorship Analysis

This study reviewed 333 articles on China's tourism from 96 English‐language academic journals within and outside of tourism from 1978 to 2012. Tourism policy and impacts, and tourism industry development and promotion were the two predominant research themes. Tourism development, policy, ecological impacts, attractions and markets were the five most popular topics. On the basis of an authorship relationship analysis, three research networks were producing most of the China tourism research output in English. A majority of the authors were based in Mainland China, the USA and Hong Kong. Trends and gaps in the literature on China's tourism were identified. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Community Participation in Tourism at a World Heritage Site: Mutianyu Great Wall,Beijing, China

Community participation is crucial for successful heritage tourism and community development. Levels and ways of participation vary, depending on nature and context of heritage sites. This paper explores community participation in tourism at Mutianyu Great Wall, China. General positive perceptions toward World Heritage, tourism development and tourism impacts are held by different groups of the local community. Between‐group differences indicate that local opinions are influenced by different levels of impacts from and participation in tourism. Community members receive benefits with minimal participation in decision making. This study provokes reflections on community participation theory and management practices in the Chinese context. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Destination Stakeholders' Perceptions of Volunteer Tourism: An Equity Theory Approach

This study explores destination stakeholders' perceptions of volunteer tourism (VT) using equity theory. In this paper, 26 semi‐structured interviews were conducted to understand individuals' needs, motivations, expectations and their assessments of inputs and outcomes. Equity theory sheds light on the micro‐level of interaction between residents and volunteers and demonstrates why and how residents of Cusco (Peru) with an active role in VT develop certain perceptions in direct encounters with volunteer tourists. The data reveal how perceptions differ according to the respondents' social roles within VT. Heterogeneity, dynamism and a fluctuation between materialities and affection are discussed as important outcomes of these interactions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tourism and climate change: a review of threats and adaptation strategies for Africa

The intersection of tourism and climate change has seen significant research over the past two decades, focusing particularly on issues of mitigation and adaptation in the global North. Research output has predominantly been centred on the Mediterranean and Nordic countries and number of localities in North America. The global South has seen significantly less investigation, despite having significantly lower adaptive capacity to the impacts of climate change, and numerous countries with rapidly growing tourism sectors. The African continent specifically has seen appreciably less research than other countries in the global South, despite arguably having the lowest adaptive capacity and projections of severe impacts of climate change to the tourism sector from temperature increases, changes in precipitation volume and sea level rise. This paper therefore presents a review of the existing literature on adaptation strategies of tourism sectors and participants in African countries. The crucial argument of this paper is in highlighting the need for an increase in research into the threats of climate change to tourism in African countries, identifying future research trajectories. The development of such knowledge would assist in the development of adaptation and mitigation strategies for these most vulnerable tourism economies.     

Tourism,globalization and economic growth: a panel cointegration analysis for selected West African States

This study examined the tourism-led hypothesis for selected 11 countries of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Panel cointegration technique was employed to inspect long-run relationship between study variables. Results of fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares confirmed the positive effect of physical capital, tourism and economic globalization index on economic growth. Thus, tourism-led growth hypothesis exists in ECOWAS. Conversely, negative impact of foreign direct investment on growth was captured.     

A Market and Spatial Perspective of Health Tourism Destinations: The Hungarian Experience

Since health tourism is one of the most popular and most dynamically developing products of modern tourism, this paper aims at studying the characteristic features of health tourism destinations from a regional and spatial perspective. Accordingly, the authors would like to introduce a new approach of spatial and product analysis of tourism where the market and spatial relations and relevance of health tourism were analysed through the example of Hungary. Although the classic medical tourism centres were established on natural medical water basis, by today, due to product diversification, continuous innovation and the involvement of medical services into health tourism, the geographical embeddedness seems to disappear, thus basically restructuring the market. The methodological novelty of the research is that exceeding the classic supply–demand algorithm, we compiled a complex viewpoint system adequate to the specialities of the given product characteristics. In our study, the authors intend to survey the special characteristics of health tourism focusing on medical destinations through Hungarian examples since the country's leading position in the global market is well recognized, including medical services. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.