The right to be read: Newspapers vs. advertisers

Prospective advertisers occasionally cannot obtain space for their messages in newspapers. In a recent case, for example, the Amalgamated Clothing Workers challenged the four Chicago daily newspapers. These “refusal to deal” cases involve three major points. First, the First Amendment protects the disseminator of messages but does not assure that messages will ever be distributed. Second, the newspaper industry is essentially one of local monopolies with a few scattered local oligopolies; future rivalry is unlikely. And, third, the courts generally have been sympathetic to the publisher who refuses an advertisement, but the broadcast media are under greater legal obligation to present both sides of controversial issues.     

The Effects of Rhetorical Figures and Cognitive Load in Word‐of‐Mouth Communications

Advertising messages often are intended to ignite large‐scale word‐of‐mouth campaigns among consumers. Drawing primarily from memetic theory, cognitive fit theory, and perceptual fluency, this research examines how rhetoric and cognitive load interact to enhance or diminish desirable effects such as retention of the original intent of the message (copy‐fidelity) and engendering a desire to pass the message along (fecundity). Certain types of rhetoric are shown to aid this process by making some messages more attractive for retransmission and increasing retention of the original message, while cognitive load modifies which types are effective in accordance with cognitive fit and perceptual fluency. The results suggest that low‐deviation high‐complexity message forms (known as reversal) are the most effective for creating positive word‐of‐mouth outcomes and limiting potentially negative outcomes. Additionally, the results show that destabilization messages are more likely to yield mutated word‐of‐mouth messages that consumers still feel a strong desire to pass along to others. For practitioners, the results indicate what message forms should be used to effectively spark word‐of‐mouth campaigns.     

The impact of gender in marketing communications: the role of cognitive and affective cues

Turkey This paper explores the role of gender in the processing of the marketing communications messages of travel agencies operating in the Turkish domestic tourism market. The study focuses on the family holiday information search process and particularly investigates how wives and husbands respond to different marketing communications messages and why. By the use of focus group studies and interviews with tourists it is established that, although there are similarities between wives and husbands in terms of their responses to various advertisements, the underlining reasons are different. While husbands make their decisions through the use of heuristic devices, such as the credibility of the sender and the attractiveness of the sender and or message, wives make their decisions based on the content of the cognitive and affective cues provided in the marketing communications messages. The research also points out that there is a large potential for improving the marketing communications messages of travel agencies operating in the Turkish domestic tourism market.     

Female tour leaders as advertising endorsers

In the Pan-Asia domain, especially Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, and the most effectively emerging power house, China, group package tours (GPTs) have been considered as an indispensable gadget for overseas vacationing tourists. A well-trained senior tour guide is capable of bringing up the GPT by offering an intriguing and entertaining interactive service, and vice versa; the presented research reveals the gender differences in terms of positioning tour leaders as advertising endorsers. Technically, the features and cover letters posed on GPT brochures simply justify the credibility of being a capable and well-organized tour leader; nevertheless, female tour leaders seem to be far more satisfying when it comes to satisfying the needs of consumers. In the meantime, there are 440 samples closely examined through the methodology of ‘post-test-only control group experimental design’, which discloses the ground-breaking mystery of why female tour leaders are more favorable than males. Significantly, the updated developing research is able to provide a cost-effective and target-oriented marketing information for any multinational Tourism Bureaus and travel agencies.     

Sensation Seeking and the Effectiveness of Physical and Social Threat Drug Prevention PSA Messages

The purpose of this study was to explore the responses of high and low sensation seeking high school students to drug prevention PSAs featuring either social or physical threat messages. One hundred eight high school students participated in a 2 (social or physical threat message)x 2 (high or low sensation seeking) experiment. As hypothesized, social threat messages were viewed more favorably than physical threat messages. In addition, the findings support that high sensation seeking teens are the appropriate target audience for anti-drug PSAs, and these individuals differ with respect to their response to physical and social threat messages.     

Extremely thin models in print ads: The dark sides

To appeal to consumers as social beings, advertisers include social settings and human images in commercial messages. Extant empirical research shows that thin models are perceived as more attractive and that the use of attractive models results in higher ad effectiveness. However, this study offers empirical evidence of ‘dark sides’ of extremely thin models, such that they harm advertising performance. The negative effects of extremely thin models stem from their influence on consumers' psychological well-being, as well as their ethical judgements of the advertisement. Respondents in this study also regard an extremely thin model as less attractive than a more average model. These results suggest that organizations should reconsider the portrayal of extremely thin models in their promotional messages and, more generally, consider consumer ethics when developing marketing communication messages.     

Using Fuzzy Preference Method for Group Package Tour Based on the Risk Perception

This study explores group package tour (GPT) itineraries based on comparative risk methodology using the fuzzy Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluation (PROMETHEE). It combines the concepts of fuzzy sets to represent the uncertain information in intrinsic risks with PROMETHEE, a subgroup of Multi-Criteria Decision Making methods. Based on in-depth interviews with 40 GPT leaders, this study identifies comprehensive intrinsic risk factors. Furthermore, this study compares the risk perceptions associated with 12 factors by applying traditional PROMETHEE and fuzzy PROMETHEE methods to four itineraries. The PROMETHEE method can be used when the input data are numeric and crisp. The fuzzy PROMETHEE method is preferred when substantial uncertainties and subjectivities exist in GPT itinerary information. Finally, several academic and managerial implications about GPT tour risk controls are outlined.     

The role of brand schemas,information transparency,and source of message on apparel brands' social responsibility communication

In today's complex business environment, apparel brands are communicating about their socially responsible (SR) practices through marketing messages to create a niche for themselves and show their SR efforts. However, SR aspects of products are difficult to verify by consumers. To help brands effectively communicate their SR efforts, this study assessed how consumers process an apparel brand's SR messages based on their prior experiences with that brand (brand schemas). Information transparency on messages and source of messages were tested as external cues to influence consumers' brand schemas and SR message evaluations in a mixed method repeated measures online experiment using a national US consumer sample. Results from regression-based conditional process analyses indicated that increased congruity of consumers' schemas to the fact that brands are SR led to more favorable attitude toward brands' SR messages. Also, presence of high information transparency on SR messages influenced consumers' schemas positively, and in turn, they evaluated messages more favorably. However, consumers were not influenced by whether messages were made by brands or third-party organizations. The study results show the importance of brand schemas and information transparency on apparel brand communications, helping both apparel brands and educators create effective SR-related marketing strategies.     

Understanding the relationship between holiday taking and self‐assessed health: an exploratory study of senior tourism

The senior market is particularly attractive to the tourism industry. Alongside evidence of a growing propensity to travel and spend, consumption is often deliberately linked to low seasons, balancing out the peaks and valleys for tourism suppliers. Health is one variable which is particularly significant to this consumer. Personal health influences all patterns of consumer behaviour regardless of age, although the full extent to which this models senior tourism activity is unclear. An exploratory qualitative study was undertaken in the spring of 2005, with 22 senior consumers (aged 55 years plus) interviewed. Utilizing the earlier work by Zimmer et al.into self‐assessed health as a framework, travel propensity, the perceived effects of travel and factors inhibiting full participation were questioned. Conclusions drawn outline both a senior tourism typology and areas for future research. Notably the relationship between caregiving and tourism consumption is singled out for further investigation.     

Parental eating messages and dietary guideline compliance of college students

The purpose of this study was to identify parental eating messages from the point of view of 340 college students and the relationship of these messages to dietary guideline practices. Four types of parental eating messages were identified: (1) threat or guilt, (2) picky eater, (3) food as health, (4) critical weight. Five types of dietary guide practices were identified: (1) fat meals and snacks, (2) vegetable–fruit, (3) sugar‐salt convenience food, (4) fitness–protein–carbohydrate, (5) fat add‐ons. The lack of association of parental eating messages with any of the dietary guideline factors suggests that messages are not affecting the food choices of these college students. Parental messages may in fact represent the way different cultures address eating, parenting and caring.     

Transport Behavior: A Role for Social Marketing

SUMMARY

This article discusses travel behavior widely acknowledged to be a significant source of pollution: the use of private transport commonly referred to as the automobile. While this behavior can be tackled in a number of ways, this article presents an overview of key issues inhibiting a voluntary change in behavior among automobile users. These topics were identified based upon qualitative research data that was gathered from a number of UK households. The research methodology adopted different social marketing collateral in each of the households during the period of research. While weaknesses are identified in the marketing collateral, the research concludes that social marketing in itself cannot persuade people to make significant changes in their travel behavior. There are deeper issues at work for commuters that need to be more fully understood by the transport research community. The value of social marketing instead may lie as an effective channel of communication that can be utilized by designated authorities in delivering important transport messages to commuters and private transport users at large.     

Stereotypical or just typical: how do US practitioners view the role and function of gender stereotypes in advertisements?

There is a long and diverse literature on gender stereotypes in advertising; however, US practitioners’ perspectives on the role and function of stereotypes in advertising remain unknown. Understanding professionals’ views on whether and how stereotypes communicate is important for anyone who believes it beneficial to reduce future stereotypical representations. Using qualitative interviews with 42 practitioners, this study detailed seven themes concerning professionals’ perceptions of the role and function of stereotypes in advertising, including beliefs that stereotypes are based in truth, are attractive to audiences, communicate quickly, simplify processing, prevent distraction, prevent thinking, and are the obvious solution. Practitioners felt stereotypes were used most appropriately when they were subverted or challenged in advertising messages. Stereotypes were most inappropriate when they reinforced negative perceptions. Four factors believed to drive the use of stereotypes in advertising are discussed.     

Security Mechanisms for Insolvencies in the Package Travel Sector: an Economic Analysis

Company insolvencies can lead to potential financial losses for consumers. Insolvency can clearly also create a severe problem for consumers who are disappointed because the travel that they were anticipating cannot take place or has to be interrupted. Insolvency may create a negative image for the entire travel sector as well; as a result, the sector itself has developed a variety of guarantee mechanisms. Moreover, governments in some legal systems have also intervened to guarantee compensation to consumers who are confronted with an insolvent travel company. The mechanisms in this respect are quite divergent. In addition, this phenomenon of providing security in the case of insolvency in the package travel sector has not yet been analysed from an economic perspective. Nevertheless, these mechanisms pose interesting questions from an economic viewpoint, inter alia with respect to the rationale for creating such a mechanism, but also related to the issue of whether either the sector itself or the government should organise a security mechanism. The goal of this paper is therefore to examine mechanisms geared to ensure financial compensation to consumers in instances of insolvencies in the package travel sector. A law and economics approach will be used to critically review these security mechanisms. In this ambit, the different mechanisms opted for in the UK, The Netherlands, and Sweden will be displayed and analysed.     

How intelligent is Watson? Enabling digital transformation through artificial intelligence

Due to its intrinsic characteristics, artificial intelligence (AI) can be considered a general-purpose technology (GPT) in the digital era. Most studies in the field focus on the ex-post recognition and classification of GPT but in this article, we look at a GPT design ex-ante by reviewing the extreme and inspiring example of IBM’s Watson. Our objective is to shed light on how companies can create value through AI. In particular, our longitudinal case study highlights the strategic decisions IBM took to create value in two dimensions: internal development and external collaborations. We offer relevant implications for practitioners and academics eager to know more about AI in the digital world.     

Promoting charitable donation campaigns on social media

It is salient to investigate how to increase persuasiveness of donation campaign messages communicated on social media. The purpose of this paper is to propose that a construal fit between different message frames (loss/gain framing and desirability/feasibility framing) and donation temporal proximity enhances the persuasiveness of charity donation messages. A convenience sample of 120 adults in Izmir voluntarily participated in this study and participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions. This research shows that gain-framed donation-promoting messages paired with desirability-framed messages are more effective on distant-future donation intentions, whereas loss-framed messages paired with feasibility-framed messages are more effective on near-future donation intentions. The findings of this paper are to figure out ways to enable marketers to develop effective Corporate Social Responsibility strategies for telecommunication service companies to encourage consumers’ charitable donations in a social media context.     

Internet blogs as a tourism marketing medium: A case study

This study explores a 2003 Yahoo Anniversary Website–I left my heart in Aegean Sea–built by Justin, a Taiwanese engineer. Justin returns from the romantic Aegean Sea and puts 124 photographs he took onto a website to share with his friends. Unexpectedly, the website becomes a hit and the address achieves wide distribution via various chain e-mails. The site helps to promote tourism to Greece, a destination relatively unknown to most Taiwanese. This investigation explores why the site appeals to so many visitors, impresses them, and even draws them to plan travel to Greece. The article describes the effect of the website by analyzing messages left on the site. The AIDA model is useful for classifying holistic messages. The data demonstrate that the website generates desire and action in over 45% of its readers. These individuals either announce plans to visit Greece immediately or at some time in the foreseeable future. The website thus significantly influences browsers and indirectly promotes Greek tourism. Then, this article describes the key success factors of this popular website. Finally, the article presents suggestions and implications for the tourism industry and for nations seeking to promote tourism.     

The moderating influence of ad framing for ad–self‐congruency effects

Prior research indicates that ad–self‐congruency effects are significant only when participants are not motivated to process ad messages, as when they are in a positive rather than negative affective state (Chang, 2002a). In line with this reasoning, it was expected that ad tactics such as ad framing that can evoke emotional responses would determine reliance on ad–self‐congruency for making judgments. As expected, when positive emotions were evoked by positive ad framing, participants formed brand evaluations based on ad–self‐congruency, generating more positive responses to self‐congruent ad messages than to self‐incongruent messages. In contrast, when negative emotions were elicited by negative ad framing, responses to self‐congruent ad messages and self‐incongruent messages were not significantly different. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Applying evolutionary psychology in understanding the representation of women in advertisements

One of the most ubiquitous creative copy decisions in advertising is to use young attractive women in decorative roles. Contrary to the mantra chanted by some staunch feminists, advertisers are not involved in a patriarchal white‐male‐dominated conspiracy to derogate, exploit, subjugate, and dominate women. Advertisers are concerned with providing messages that are maximally effective to their relevant target audience. Accordingly, they are well aware that in certain situations the use of decorative female models will appeal to a particular group of their constituency. Using evolutionary psychology as the explicative framework, it is argued that the greater use of young and attractive women in decorative roles in advertising is steeped in the differential mating strategies of the two sexes. An analysis of several content‐analytic studies demonstrates that the more frequent use of women as young and attractive decorative models is longitudinally stable and culturally invariant further attesting to the Darwinian roots of this phenomenon. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

E-Traveling via Information Technology

ABSTRACT

The travel industry has begun to leverage the Internet by mirroring the electronic ticketing systems used by the airlines enabling hotels and tourism institutions in general to develop IT systems similar to American Airlines' Sabre system. These systems initially allowed travel agents to search for flights electronically. Now the customer is empowered to follow the lines of disintermediation and bypass the travel agent entirely. Thus, the travel industry is in a similar phase that manufacturing companies are dealing with, namely more transparent supply chains and flatter organizational structures-a common theme found in conducting e-commerce. Several models are suggested from industry to leverage connections that sell directly to the customer or buy directly from the manufacturer, although they all present potential risks, especially since this direct contact and transparency makes additional customer-partner contact easier and more likely to occur outside the direct control of the companies involved. The most compelling example of this situation is in the travel industry. In essence, the hospitality industries in general (hotels, airlines, car rental companies, and other travel services) are providing information and reservation systems directly to end consumers, entirely bypassing the traditional intermediary of travel agencies.