Community-based Tourism Enterprises Development in Kenya: An Exploration of Their Potential as Avenues of Poverty Reduction

The United Nations World Tourism Organization endorses tourism for economic development and poverty reduction in developing countries, emphasising the role of micro-, small- and medium-sized tourism enterprises. In Kenya, community-based enterprises (CBEs) are preferred. This paper evaluates CBE potential and challenges for poverty reduction in Kenya. Reviewing literature on Kenyan tourism development, it uses case studies of six Kenyan CBEs spread across Kenya's tourism-focused community-based initiatives selected using opportunistic and snowball sampling. The case studies used individual in-depth semi-structured interviews with community leaders, CBE managers, tourism academics, support organisations and government officials, and focus groups with community members. The paper develops a detailed understanding of the CBEs, identifying the catalyst for their establishment and the role and degree of external intervention. It explores critical success factors, the extent to which CBEs alleviate poverty, and factors making communities welcome CBEs (or not). The results emphasise the conservation orientation of CBEs, with support agencies preferring partnership approaches involving white investment which inadequately addresses community priorities. Through foreign resource control and heavy reliance on donor funding, CBEs promote neocolonialism and reinforce dependency. An urgent review of the support framework for community tourism development in Kenya integrating the principles of sustainable development is advocated.     

The Potential for Developing Community-based Tourism among the Bedouins in the Badia of Jordan

Population displacement through desertification has affected the socioeconomic and cultural development of Jordan's Badia desert. To counterbalance this change, it is important to preserve and revitalise cultural heritage as a source of tourism development in the desert. One possible way of revitalising the Badia regions is to highlight their cultural resources for tourism. The goal of the study is to find alternative tourism resources based on understanding the potential tourism resources in the Badia and to attract tourists for cultural heritage experiences. The analysis suggests new opportunities for cultural heritage tourism with elements of Bedouin material and non-material culture. Solutions include establishing community-based Bedouin tourism that involves the local people in partnership with the BRDC,1 expanding the tourism network to include the Badia region using resources such as folkways and archaeology to enrich the experience, building a rest house; and erecting a Bedouin heritage village. This will generate income and give Badia indigenous communities additional revenue, thereby positively impacting the regional and national economy.     

国外野生动物旅游研究综述

非资源消费型野生动物旅游活动已经吸引了越来越多的人们关注和参与其中,而且这种形式的旅游活动从长远来看,有利于解决经济发展和野生动物保护这一矛盾.国外关于野生动物旅游的研究比较系统而深入.文章通过对国外有关野生动物旅游的文献进行梳理,认为从野生动物旅游产品的角度,文献主要集中在非资源消费型、半资源消费型和费源消费型野生动物旅游的研究;基于利益相关者的角度来看,文献主要集中在动物旅游的影响研究、游客满意度的控制、社区居民的态度这三个方面.最后,文章还对国外该领域现有文献的研究局限作了简要分析,并展望其未来可能的发展走向,以期能为国内相关研究提供参考和启示.     

Lifestyle Segmentation in Tourism and Leisure

ABSTRACT

This article examines three different approaches to lifestyle segmentation in improving the quality of tourism and leisure marketing decisions in three separate cases. Tourism and leisure products are prototypical lifestyle purchase yet in many tourism research studies visitors are described by demographics or tourism behaviour only. These cases illustrate different approaches to lifestyle segmentation. Firstly, there are segmentation schemes based on external logic that can be broadly applied across a range of markets, including tourism and leisure. Alternatively, there are schemes that are based on a 'conversation' with the data and which rely on an internal logic within that data that may not transfer to other market contexts. Between these two lie schemes that apply external paradigms to specific datasets. The cases selected illustrate points along this spectrum.

The first case study examines the use by government tourism organizations of lifestyle segmentation 'bought in' from an external source. Here lifestyle segmentation data is collected from a representative sample of the Australian population as part of a commercial “single source” data set. The second case is based on a regional tourism study, which has utilized prior theory to develop its own lifestyle segmentation and at the same time related this to boarder characteristics of tourists in Tropical North Queensland. The third case examines the development of tailored lifestyle segmentation among 'event' spectators based on purely internal criteria unrelated to the broader population. These cases provide insight into the appropriate development and application of lifestyle segmentation and the use of the data by tourism and leisure managers. Managers may think about the type of lifestyle segmentation approach required based on how the segmentation scheme results need to be related to the wider market or population.     

低碳旅游:一种新的旅游发展方式

随着人类生态文明建设进程的推进,低碳经济、低碳技术、碳汇机制、低碳消费方式正日益影响和诱导着人类的生产和消费方式。旅游作为人类文明进步的产物,具有响应低碳经济模式、运用低碳技术、推行碳汇机制、倡导低碳消费方式的先天优势。以营造低碳旅游吸引物、建设低碳旅游设施、培育碳汇旅游体验环境和倡导低碳旅游消费方式为主要实现路径的低碳旅游发展方式,是旅游响应低碳经济发展方式的具体行动,为生态文明新时代背景下的可持续旅游发展方式提供了新的发展指向。     

Predictors of Interpersonal Growth in Volunteer Tourism: A Latent Curve Approach

Volunteer travel has become a substantial market segment in the tourism industry. Case studies have documented the effects of volunteer travel on participants and host communities. The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine the impact of volunteer travel experiences on the openness, civic attitudes, and wisdom of college participants and to elucidate predictors of positive growth in these intended outcomes. A multivariate latent growth model was tested to determine the nature of growth trajectories. Results indicate that the program had positive immediate impacts on all dependent variables. Evidence of continued growth was found one month after the experience in a follow-up assessment. Participants involved in leadership roles and those who engaged in regular personal reflection demonstrated stronger long-term growth.     

Modeling Japanese Tourism Demand for Asian Destinations: A Dynamic AIDS Approach

This paper investigates the expenditure allocation of Japanese international tourism in its five major Asian destinations, China, Hong Kong, Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand. The dynamic of linear approximation the almost ideal demand system is used to determine the long-run equilibrium while the short-run dynamics are represented by an error correction mechanism. The empirical results indicate that the changes in market shares of Japanese outbound tourism are significantly influenced by the changes in tourists' expenditure, rather than the changes in relative tourism prices. The results show that Japan expenditure rises, the market share of Taiwan and Thailand declines, while Korea benefits. In addition, price competitiveness is important for Japanese demand for Korea, but is relatively unimportant for the other destinations.     

旅游信息服务视阈下的智慧旅游慨念探讨

智慧旅游的丰富实践使研究者不断思考“什么是智慧旅游”的问题,而对这个基本问题虽有很多解答但仍然需要进行探索。文章试图通过对国内外有关智慧旅游的概念进行了梳理,建立起以旅游信息服务为基础的智慧旅游的基本概念,即把智慧旅游定义为旅游者个体在旅游活动过程中所接受的泛在化的旅游信息服务。该定义旨在强调智慧旅游以旅游者个体为核心、以信息服务为载体的支撑体系,以泛在化作为核心内涵,以旅游者行为方式、旅游业营销方式、管理方式和服务方式的根本性变化为主要外延,并据此对国内外智慧旅游概念进行了全面评价。文章的价值在于将智慧旅游的概念与旅游信息化（特别是旅游信息服务）有机结合,既承上启下又能开启智慧旅游发展的新思路。     

旅游研究中的系统思维方法：概念与应用

越来越多的学者认识到,旅游是一个开放性的复杂巨系统,系统思维与系统方法在旅游研究中的运用逐步得到重视。本文是对系统思维方法在旅游研究中的应用的研究综述,包括系统思维方法对定义旅游的概念和旅游的构成要素的应用,以及在旅游规划、区域旅游研究及旅游发展系统模拟等研究中的应用。国内研究尚处于综合性系统思维和概念应用阶段,而系统方法在理论和应用研究方面均需要进一步深入。     

Cave Tourism: Tourists' Characteristics,Motivations to Visit,and the Segmentation of Their Behavior

Geotourism is one among many types of ecotourism or nature tourism. Cave tourism within geotourism has gained popularity in Korea. The study's objectives include cave tourists' characteristics, segmenting them according to motivation factors, and finally identifying who they are. The sample population for this research consisted of tourists who have visited the Hwansun Cave in Samchuk City. Among a total of 547 questionnaires distributed, 537 questionnaires were used for further data analyses. On the basis of cluster analysis using the motivation factors, cluster 1 was named an “escape-seeking group”, cluster 2 was termed a “knowledge- and novelty-seeking group”, cluster 3 was called a “novelty-seeking group” and cluster 4 was termed a “socialization group”. Differences in socio-demographic variables, beliefs about cave tourism resources, preferred cave tourism products, satisfaction with this tour, willingness to participate in another cave tour and belief in the value of cave tourism resources were found among the four clusters. The study's findings were expected to be helpful in understanding who they are.     

旅游公共服务:内涵、特征与分类框架

为适应旅游发展的新形势,加强和完善旅游公共服务已经成为各级旅游管理部门一项紧迫而重要的任务。本文基于公共产品等相关理论,从旅游公共服务的服务对象、特性以及相关概念之间的区别等方面对旅游公共服务的内涵范畴、特征进行界定和探讨。根据旅游公共服务的属性特征、内容构成、存在形态、受益影响范围以及需求差异,笔者对旅游公共服务进行全面、系统的划分与归类,为行政管理部门提供具有理论基础的决策依据,以满足公众日益增长的旅游公共服务需求。     

Transitions to Sustainable Tourism Mobility: The Social Practices Approach

In this article, we argue that current research on sustainable tourism mobility can be divided roughly into two streams. One covers primarily the organisational and technological side of tourism mobility, while the other concentrates on travellers' attitudes. To date, these streams have been organised as separate bodies of research. There is much to be gained by being able to create linkages between the two. To do this, tourism research will have to develop a less generalised and more context-specific approach to travelling behaviour. In this paper, the Social Practices Approach is suggested as an interesting conceptual tool to interrelate current approaches. By giving greater consideration to the contextual dimension of tourism practices, citizen-consumers might be mobilised more effectively as change agents. To analyse the potential roles of citizen-consumers in transition processes towards sustainable tourism mobility, two citizen-consumer-led change processes are differentiated. The first is directed at tourists in their consumer-role, by providers developing sociotechnical innovations enabling and tempting tourists to behave more sustainably, and by incorporating consumer-logics in supply. Second, tourists can be mobilised in their role as citizen-consumers through processes of sub-politics, social movements and political consumerism.     

可持续旅游开发多中心管理模式研究——以湖泊旅游为例

旅游开发必须建立在科学的管理模式下,才能确保资源环境的可持续利用.而作为常见的旅游开发形式,湖泊旅游具有较强的环境敏感性和生态脆弱性.本文以此为着眼点,系统论述了可持续目标下的旅游开发过程中的多中心管理模式,阐明了各行为主体的职能与关联,并就我国当前湖泊旅游开发管理的若干关键问题提出了建议和对策,尤其深入地针对一些流行观点进行了再认识.     

成都国际旅游营销的市场细分与定位研究

城市国际旅游市场营销必须建立在科学的需求分析预测基础上,才能确保后续管理活动的正确和高效.本文基于对海外10个国家和旅居国内4城市的外籍人士的问卷调研,聚类分析出成都市国际旅游客源的5大细分市场,阐明了各目标市场的类型特征及其相应的产品结构性开发,并就成都实际提出了整合旅游营销传播的市场定位体系.     

A Survey of Tourist Expectations and Economic Potential for a Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary in a Maasai Group Ranch near Amboseli,Kenya

This paper looks at the ethical, ecological, community, economic and management issues in extending wildlife tourism and conservation beyond national park boundaries in Kenya. It specifically examines the proposed Kuku Community Conservation Area (KCCA). Prerequisites, including the availability of diverse tourist attractions, local community support, the support of tourism investors and other stakeholders are considered. Research focused on interviews with tourists and tour operators visiting the Tsavo-Amboseli Ecosystem. Wildlife was the number one attraction for over 75% of tourists, though some were attracted by the Maasai culture. Most of the tourists (over 75%) were willing to visit a community wildlife sanctuary. This willingness was independent of their belief that the Maasai were actually benefiting from wildlife resources (p > 0.20) but was dependent (p < 0.001) on their desire to have the Maasai benefit. Most of them (over 70%) wanted the Maasai Community to benefit from wildlife and tourism, even though a majority (over 70%) did not know the role the community played in conservation, or (over 80% of them) the socio-economic burden that wildlife places on local communities. A majority (over 60%) of tourists had not visited a Maasai cultural centre, but most (over 70%) would have visited if they knew what was presented there. Based on a simple management model of 46 staff, KCCA could potentially generate a net Ksh10.35 million (US$147,867) annually, in addition to revenue from a proposed cultural centre and resource access benefits for the local community. With the existing tourist attractions in the area and with potential partnerships with tour companies, maximum benefit to the community from the successful tourism industry already operating in the area can be realised, hence legitimising wildlife conservation for the community.     

Application of Cross-Impact Analysis in Tourism:

Qualitative approaches to forecasting generally are methods by which qualitative information form experts can be combined in order to make forecasts. Cross-impact analysis is such a qualitative forecasting method that is used form examining the impacts of potential future events upon each other. Given the complexity and interdependence which characterized tourism, cross-impact analysis seems to be a forecasting technique which is particularly relevant for tourism, and yet t appears to have been ignored in the tourism I the Azores, and illustrates how the technique may be used to assist with strategic planning.     

旅游信息科学：一个研究框架

信息和人类的实践活动紧密联系在一起。21世纪是信息社会,信息需求的不断增加和信息技术的快速发展推动了信息科学的全面建设。旅游业是一个综合性极强、信息依存度极高的产业,信息技术已经渗透到旅游活动的各个层面,给现代旅游活动和旅游研究带来了全方位的影响,旅游信息科学的创建和发展已刻不容缓。文章在深入分析信息、信息科学相关概念和理论的基础上,探讨了旅游系统和旅游信息科学之间的关系,提出了旅游信息及旅游信息科学的概念,阐述了旅游信息科学的学科体系（理论、方法论和技术体系）,构建了研究对象、研究领域、研究主题和研究目标的四维旅游信息科学研究框架（ODTG研究框架）,并结合旅游业以及旅游研究的发展趋势,指出了旅游信息科学的未来研究重点。     

Cross-Cultural Differences in Tourism: A Strategy for Tourism Marketers

Abstract

This paper discusses the importance of understanding cultural differences for developing positive tourist-host contact and, consequently, enhancing tourist holiday satisfaction and repeat visitation. The cultural differences between Korean tourists and Australian service providers are identified and dimensions of these differences are determined by principal components analysis. The strength of the relationships between the cultural dimensions and their critical indicators is measured by using structural equation modeling Submodel 1. The results indicate that the most critical dimensions of cultural difference between Australian hosts and Korean tourists are: communication and understanding the tourist, display of feelings, interaction and idealism. Their critical indicators are identified. The implications of the results for tourism industry marketers are presented.     

环境旅游与文化旅游紧密结合--贵州省乡村旅游发展的前景和方向

本文紧紧围绕乡村旅游发展的方向——环境旅游与文化旅游紧密结合这个主题,从乡村旅游的基本概念和本质特征入手,就乡村旅游的市场特点和发展趋势进行了分析．并对如何开发贵州省乡村旅游产品进行了分类讨论,指出环境旅游和文化旅游紧密结合是贵州乡村旅游可持续发展的基本要求．贵州省乡村旅游只有沿着环境旅游和文化旅游紧密结合的方向前进,才有希望把贵州省建设顾国内、乃至国际著名的乡村旅游胜地。     

邮轮霸船之法律考量——以《旅游法》为分析进路

邮轮霸船已成为邮轮旅游发展之实质障碍,在2013年《中华人民共和国旅游法》(以下简称《旅游法》)生效之后,将邮轮霸船行为置于《旅游法》框架下进行考量确为解决问题之良策。首先明确邮轮公司与旅客各自的法律定位,邮轮旅客身份发生了从旅客到消费者再到不轨旅客的嬗变,将邮轮公司定性为《旅游法》下的履行辅助人则更为恰当,并厘清彼此之间的法律关系,进而分析邮轮霸船中不轨旅客因违反法定义务而对邮轮公司法定权利的践踏与公共秩序安全的危害。为此,邮轮霸船问题的有效解决亟须确立疏堵并举的法治化治理理念,严格执法,并以倒逼的方式来培养旅客的规则意识,同时,需要通过域外旅游纠纷裁决制度的本土化构建来形成一套行之有效的争端解决机制。