Evidence of the impact of mandatory changes in accounting principles on corporate loan agreements

The Theory in this paper predicts that mandatory changes in accounting princples can affect the measurement rules defined in restrictive covenants in firms' lending agreements. Consequently, those mandatory changes can have an impact on the value of a firm's equity, even if the changes appear to be merely ‘cosmetic’. This contracting cost theory is tested by examining of both event-related and cross-sectional abnormal performance of the equity of a sample of firms when the Accounting Princples Board changes accounting princples for business combinations. The theory provides, at best, in incomplete explanation of the observed abnormal performance.     

Types of investor uncertainty and the cost of equity capital

We jointly test the effects of two types of investor uncertainty, one related to future firm performance and unrelated to accruals (cash flow uncertainty) and one directly related to accrual estimation errors (accounting quality uncertainty). Distinct from prior studies, our uncertainty estimates are based on a matched‐firm design that minimizes the mechanical relationship between the two uncertainty variables. We find a strong negative relationship between cash flow uncertainty and multiple estimates of the cost of equity capital. With respect to accounting quality uncertainty, we find a strong positive association with both expected stock returns and implied costs of equity, but only in settings that control for cash flow uncertainty. Collectively, our results suggest the need to consider different types of investor uncertainty when examining how investor uncertainty affects the cost of equity capital.     

What drives corporate minority acquisitions around the world? The case for financial constraints

In this paper, I examine minority block acquisitions from 1990 to 2009, as well as possible theories for the presence of equity stake purchases. I find that target firms are financially constrained. Acquisitions significantly increase their stock prices at announcement, along with their investment expenditures afterwards. In the two years following the acquisition, 27% (9%) issue new equity (debt) and raise 27% (24%) of their market capitalization. These findings support the theory that equity stakes certify the investment opportunities of target firms. I also find some support for the contracting motive, mostly in countries with good investor protection and a well-performing banking sector.     

跨地上市公司具有较低的权益资本成本吗?——基于“法与金融”的视角

根据法与金融理论,严格的投资者保护制度有助于降低公司的权益资本成本,本文以赴中国香港跨地上市后返回中国大陆发行A股的公司为研究对象,检验其是否因受制于更为严格的投资者保护制度而具有较低的权益资本成本。研究结果表明,在A股市场上,赴港跨地上市公司比其他公司的权益资本成本更低,跨地上市对权益资本成本具有降低作用,且这种降低作用与香港较为严格的投资者保护制度有关。     

Taxes, Leverage, and the Cost of Equity Capital

We examine the associations among leverage, corporate and investor level taxes, and the firm's implied cost of equity capital. Expanding on Modigliani and Miller [1958, 1963] , the cost of equity capital can be expressed as a function of leverage and corporate and investor level taxes. Based on this expression, we predict that the cost of equity is increasing in leverage, and that corporate taxes mitigate this leverage‐related risk premium, while the personal tax disadvantage of debt increases this premium. We empirically test these predictions using implied cost of equity estimates and proxies for the firm's corporate tax rate and the personal tax disadvantage of debt. Our results suggest that the equity risk premium associated with leverage is decreasing in the corporate tax benefit from debt. We find some evidence that the equity risk premium from leverage is increasing in the personal tax penalty associated with debt.     

Dividend Taxes and Implied Cost of Equity Capital

We estimate firm‐level implied cost of equity capital based on recent advances in accounting and finance research and examine the effect of dividend taxes on the cost of equity capital. We investigate whether dividend taxes affect firms' cost of capital by testing the relation between the implied cost of equity capital and a measure of the tax‐penalized portion of dividend yield, which we define as the product of dividend yield and the dividend tax penalty. The results generally support the dividend tax capitalization hypothesis. We find a positive relation between the implied cost of equity capital and the tax‐penalized portion of dividend yield that is decreasing in aggregate institutional ownership, our proxy for tax‐advantaged investors. The evidence in this study adds to the understanding of the effect of investor‐level taxes on equity value.     

Cost of Capital for Exempt Foreign Private Issuers: Information Risk Effect or Earnings Quality Effect? It Depends

We examine whether the information risk accompanying Foreign Private Issuers' (FPIs) exemptions from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) reporting requirements is associated with capital market penalties (measured by a higher cost of equity capital) and, further, the extent to which this information risk is mitigated by earnings quality. Our overall results indicate that exempt FPIs exhibit a higher cost of equity capital than reporting FPIs, and this relation still persists after controlling for earnings quality. Furthermore, we partition our sample into firms from strong and weak investor protection environments. Interestingly, similar to the results in Francis et al. (2008), for FPIs from strong investor protection regimes we find no difference in the cost of capital between exempt and filing FPIs, even after controlling for earnings quality. To the contrary, for FPIs from weak investor protection regimes, we find that the exemption is associated with a higher cost of equity capital, and that earnings quality does not significantly reduce the premium paid by these issuers.     

Investor Sentiment and Stock Returns: Evidence from Turkey

This paper investigates the relation between investor sentiment and stock returns on the Istanbul Stock Exchange, employing vector autoregressive (VAR) analysis and Granger causality tests. The sample period extends from July 1997 to June 2005. In the VAR models, stock portfolio returns and investor sentiment proxies are used as endogenous variables. Two dummy variables accounting for natural and economic crises are used as exogenous variables. The analysis results suggest that, excepting shares of equity issues in aggregate issues, stock portfolio returns seem to affect all investor sentiment proxies, namely closed-end fund discount, mutual fund flows, odd-lot sales-to-purchases ratio, and repo holdings of mutual funds. Investor sentiment does not appear to forecast future stock returns; only the turnover ratio of the stock market seems to have forecasting potential.     

Disclosure and the Cost of Capital: A Survey of the Theoretical Literature

This article offers a survey of theoretical research on disclosure and the cost of capital. We summarize the current state of the literature and discuss the channels through which information affects the cost of capital. After giving an overview of asset pricing theory, we examine the rationale for an accounting risk factor or an ex‐ante effect of information on the cost of capital. Then, we discuss the role of voluntary disclosure, heterogenous beliefs, investor base, liquidity shocks, earnings management, and agency problems as determinants of the cost of capital. Linkages between productive decisions and the cost of capital, and their implication for investor welfare, are also examined.     

A Re-examination of Disclosure Level and the Expected Cost of Equity Capital

This paper examines the association between the cost of equity capital and levels of annual report and timely disclosure, and investor relations activities. We estimate the cost of equity capital using the classic dividend discount model. We find that the cost of equity capital decreases in the annual report disclosure level but increases in the level of timely disclosures. The latter result is contrary to theory but is consistent with managers' claims that greater timely disclosures may increase the cost of equity capital, possibly through increased stock price volatility. We find no association between the cost of equity capital and the level of investor relations activities. We conclude that aggregating across different disclosure types results in a loss of information. Failing to include all disclosure types in regression analyses may lead to a correlated omitted variable bias and erroneous conclusions.     

Beyond CAPM: estimating the cost of equity considering idiosyncratic risks

The present study proposes a new evaluation approach aimed at estimating the cost of equity through standardized models which consider an innovative set of firm-specific information on the main unsystematic risks which are typical of any business. Our objective is extending the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) by defining a standard formula for quantifying the premium for certain idiosyncratic risks as a function of a new set of firm-specific quantitative information. We define two econometric models, for listed and non-listed firms respectively, which consider five idiosyncratic risk factors: firm size, value factor, operating risks, financial structure and stock market price volatility. The models were tested on a sample of European non-financial companies. The empirical results show that while the CAPM systematically underestimates the cost of equity, the proposed models correctly estimate its expected value; furthermore, they show a slight improvement also in terms of estimates’ volatility. Due to their efficacy and ease of use, the proposed models represent a valid practical tool for investors, analysts and professional evaluators. This work contributes to the existing literature by proposing a typologically innovative extension of the CAPM set of explanatory variables, defining and testing new models for the estimation of the unsystematic risks’ spread of the cost of equity based on an original set of firm-specific accounting and market information.     

An income strategy approach to the positive theory of accounting standard setting/choice

This paper is designed to provide additional evidence on the positive theory of accounting policy choice by combining individual accounting principles into firm income strategies. These strategies were the dependent variable in a probit analysis where the independent variables were size, management compensation, industry concentration ratio, systematic risk, capital intensity and the total debt to total asset ratio. The results indicate that four of these factors (size, management compensation, concentration ratio, and the total debt to total asset ratio) have a significant association with the choice of a firm's income strategy. This test provides strong evidence consistent with the positive theory of accounting standard setting/choice. We also present evidence that smaller firms and/or firms in less concentrated industries do not appear to make accounting policy choice decisions that are consistent with this theory.     

Portfolio strategies and performance

The relative performance of several portfolio selection strategies is assessed empirically. These strategies vary in sophistication from a ‘naive’ strategy of maintaining equal dollar investments in each stock available to a strategy that periodically uses updated parameter estimates to calculate new optimal proportions of portfolio value to be invested in the stocks available. Although it is to be expected a priori that relatively sophisticated strategies will perform at least as well as the more naive strategies, implementation costs will clearly differ across strategies and across investor-specific parameters such as total portfolio value. Thus estimation of the various strategies' performance gross of these costs is a necessary consideration in rational strategy selection by any given investor.     

Accounting data and the credit spread: An empirical investigation

Measures of credit risk based on Merton (1974) rely upon information available in the market prices of securities. Under the Efficient Market Hypothesis market prices should reflect all available information and, hence, make redundant all other information in the analysis of credit risk. This paper examines whether accounting data are fully reflected in the market-based measures of credit risk and therefore has no role in explaining variations in the credit spread on corporate bonds. We use a sample consisting of over 11,000 firm-quarter observations with matched equity, bond and accounting data. The results suggest that equity volatility and Merton's distance-to-default outperform accounting variables in explaining variations in the credit spread. However, accounting variables are incrementally informative in explaining variations in the credit spread when considered in conjunction with market-based measures. Within the set of accounting variables considered, we find that the profitability ratio is by far the most incrementally informative accounting variable.     

Does Investor Sentiment Affect the Value Relevance of Accounting Information?

We investigate whether investor sentiment affects the relationships between accounting variables and contemporaneous stock returns. Using price-relevant accounting variables identified by Chen and Zhang (2007) and the investor sentiment index constructed by Baker and Wurgler (2006), we find that the value relevance of accounting variables is collectively lower in high sentiment periods than in low sentiment periods. More importantly, earnings yield appears to be more related to contemporaneous stock returns in high sentiment periods, while other accounting variables are more related to stock returns in low sentiment periods. The effect of investor sentiment on the value relevance of accounting information is stronger for firms that are more difficult to value and to arbitrage.     

Corporate derivatives use and the cost of equity

We investigate the relation between derivatives use and corporations’ cost of equity capital. Using a large sample of non-financial firms, we compute and analyze (i) the relative cost of equity of firms that use derivatives and those that do not; and (ii) the change in cost of equity experienced by firms initiating derivatives programs. We find that the cost of equity of derivatives users is lower than non-users by 24-78 basis points. Our results are robust to specifications that account for potential endogeneity related to a firm’s derivatives use and capital structure decisions. We further find that the reduction in the cost of equity is attributable to both lower market beta and SMB beta, suggesting that firms use derivatives to reduce their financial distress risk and that this distress risk has a systematic component that is priced in the market. Finally, the observed reductions in the cost of equity tend to be largest for smaller firms and for firms utilizing currency and interest rate derivatives.     

The Relevance of Accounting Data in the Measurement of Credit Risk

Abstract

Option pricing theory provides a robust and theoretically sound framework for the measurement of credit risk. Assuming perfect market conditions, information relevant to the measurement of a firm’s credit risk is reflected in its equity price, with no role for accounting data. This hypothesis is tested using UK data and credit ratings as a proxy for credit risk. It is found that Merton’s distance-to-default measure is the most significant variable in the measurement of credit risk. However, it is also found that accounting variables are incrementally informative when added to a model that contains only the distance-to-default measure. The incremental informativeness of accounting data varies across industries and depends on firm size. Although it is found that the general level of credit risk depends on the state of the economy, there is no evidence to suggest that the incremental informativeness of the accounting variables depends upon macroeconomic conditions.     

ESTIMATING THE EQUITY RISK PREMIUM AND EQUITY COSTS: NEW WAYS OF LOOKING AT OLD DATA

This article examines three alternative ways of estimating the expected return on the equity market in using the CAPM or some other risk premium model. The three techniques are (1) direct estimation of the average nominal equity return for use as a forecast nominal equity return; (2) estimation of the average real equity return, which can then be added to a forecast inflation rate; and (3) estimation of an average equity risk premium, which is then added to a current risk-free rate. Ibbotson and Sinquefeld's data on annual holding period returns are used to test the validity of their assumption that the equity risk premium follows a random walk and that the third of these approaches is thus the best method.
The paper reaches three major conclusions. First, each of these three techniques involves a "bias" of some kind. The use of average equity returns as a forecast is subject to "risk-free rate" and "inflation rate" biases, while the use of an average equity risk premium is subject to a "term premium" bias. As a result, only the data can tell us which approach is best. Second, from analyzing equity and bond return data and the trend in interest rates, the author concludes that the term premium bias when using average historic equity risk premium is by far the largest of the three sources of bias. Indeed, the popular practice of adding an historic average equity risk premium to the 30-year Treasury bond rate significantly overstates equity costs. Third, after examining equity rates of return back to 1871, the author concludes that the real equity return seems to follow a process that is close to a random walk and is thus the "best" of the three techniques to use as a "naive" forecast.     

Discussion of Accounting Discretion in Fair Value Estimates: An Examination of SFAS 142 Goodwill Impairments

Beatty and Weber examine an accounting choice that managers made upon adoption of Statement of Financial Accounting Standards 142: whether to record a goodwill asset impairment as a cumulative effect of an accounting change at the time of adoption or delay the recognition of such an impairment to the future (perhaps indefinitely) when they would be recorded as expenses in earnings from continuing operations. The authors consider several factors that might influence management's reporting of transition effects, including contracting, equity market incentives, and regulatory forces. Participants at the 2005 Journal of Accounting Research Conference questioned whether such a complex accounting decision can be captured with simple linear models and noisy proxy variables, while also speculating upon whether the results would generalize to other settings. In this discussion, I summarize Beatty and Weber's research, highlight its contribution to the accounting literature, and provide a record of the main issues raised by the conference participants.     

Litigation reform,accounting discretion,and the cost of equity

In this paper, we isolate a context – the 1995 Public Securities Litigation Reform Act – where information risk (accruals quality) is likely to change, and investigate whether the increase in accounting discretion associated with litigation reform is viewed by investors as basically opportunistic (i.e., as distorting reported earnings) or as improving the ability of reported earnings to reflect economic value. We measure accounting discretion using both positive (i.e., income-increasing) as well as absolute performance-adjusted abnormal accruals. Our analysis focuses on a constant sample of firms over a 10-year (1992–2001) period, and is structured in two stages. In the first-stage, we utilize an instrumental variable technique that isolates the increase in accounting discretion associated with the 1995 Act. In the second-stage, we relate the predicted increase in accounting discretion associated with litigation reform – obtained from the first-stage regression – to the ex ante equity risk premium for Big N audit clients. Our results suggest that the increase in accounting discretion associated with the 1995 Act was viewed by investors as basically opportunistic. Further, the exogenous nature of the 1995 Act suggests that the observed increase (and pricing) of accounting discretion is related to litigation reform rather than some omitted firm-specific operating characteristic. Overall, our findings suggest that litigation reform affects firm value through managers’ exercise of accounting discretion and cost of equity capital channels.