The National Cycle Strategy in the UK: to what extent have local authorities adopted its model strategy approach?

In 1996 the UK government announced a National Cycle Strategy (NCS) which included a model local cycle strategy. This paper reports on the findings of an ongoing research project, which seeks to evaluate the extent to which recently published local cycle strategies reflect best practice as enshrined in the model guidance. The results suggest that the level of take up of the model strategy is highly variable and ranges from authorities which adopt the model in its entirety to those that effectively ignore it. If government targets for increasing cycle use are to be achieved then it will be necessary for more local authorities to develop robust plans which are consistent with the NCS.     

The development of a benchmarking tool for monitoring progress towards sustainable transportation in New Zealand

Creating and maintaining a safe and sustainable transport system is a common challenge for road authorities around the world. The New Zealand government has taken this challenge one step further by incorporating it into country’s legislation. As a consequence all road land transport authorities are committed to implementing initiatives to respond to both the challenge and the legislation. A benchmarking process for the transport sector is one of these initiatives on a national level. Benchmarking is a well known and utilised technology for the measuring of performance for infrastructure, for example within the water provision sector in England. This paper presents the development of a national benchmarking process for the transport sector of New Zealand. This development is part of a strategy to encourage road land transport authorities to improve the performance of transport in achieving sustainability and environmental targets. The development involved a literature review, proof of concept and the full implementation stage. A total of nine key performance indicators were developed to indicate the status of transport sector performance. The project and its outcomes are considered to be of benefit to road land transport authorities across the world who wish to develop a benchmark process of their own.     

Using the land-use planning process to secure travel plans: an assessment of progress in England to date

A travel plan is a package of measures implemented by an organisation to encourage people who travel to/from that organisation to do so by means other than driving alone by private car. This paper advances two principal arguments: firstly, that the planning system and maximum parking standards as part of it are the main factors leading to travel plan development in England today; and, secondly, that the difficulties of using the planning system in this way means that there is a risk that many of these travel plans are unlikely to have a great deal of influence on travel patterns, making it more unlikely that they will achieve the predicted impact on travel behaviour change, as contained in the important study and report “Smarter Choices” (Department for Transport, 2004).This paper presents results from a survey of planning and transport authorities in England, which obtained a 62% response rate from the 139 authorities contacted. It also uses the results of 18 interviews with local authority and Highways Agency staff involved in securing travel plans through the planning process. The survey found that the planning process (as opposed to voluntary efforts) is indeed the main means by which travel plans are now secured. In addition, maximum parking standards were shown to have a major influence on travel plan formation for organisations going through the planning process. There are however reasons to doubt that all of the travel plans secured through the planning process are effective. This is because:

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Many local authorities use only planning conditions and not the more flexible (but complex) obligations which would allow more complex travel plans to be secured.

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There is a lack of monitoring of travel plans in many authorities.

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There is evidence that in many authority areas there are travel plans in breach of legal agreements, but these breaches are not enforced, reportedly due to a lack of monitoring, resources, and other organisational issues.

The paper discusses the reasons for these findings and also makes a number of suggestions as to how the planning system could be improved as a means of securing travel plans.     

Transport planning and participation: the rhetoric and realities of public involvement

The new direction in transport policy, embodied in the 1998 White Paper, has brought with it a sea change in political thinking about the objectives and process of local transport planning. In this paper, we consider `the realities' of how one cornerstone of this `new' agenda, a duty on authorities to undertake `public participation' in producing their local transport plans, has been conceptualised and integrated within the wider planning practice. Drawing on a research project which involved a survey of English highway authorities and a content analysis of policy documents we evaluate experiences in relation to four key principles of the participation process. The paper concludes that whilst there is considerable activity on the surface, evidence of substantive impacts on local transport planning or a strategic approach to the participation process is sparse – a situation which is, we argue, traceable back to the lack of clarity in central government policy and guidance.     

Norway's urban toll rings: Evolving towards congestion charging?

The role of various types of road user tolls has been an important part of Norwegian transport development for a number of years. There are now around 50 such projects in operation around the country. This paper examines the urban toll ring projects and presents results from new research into the schemes in Norway's three largest cities: Oslo, Bergen and Trondheim. The research indicates that key decisions are being debated as to whether the schemes will continue as toll rings, be stopped completely or transformed into more of a demand management style policy. Interviews with road and local authorities have shown that the feelings are mixed and that the decision will depend on various transport, social, organisational and political factors.This paper reviews the cases of Bergen, Oslo and Trondheim and documents the latest developments in each scheme. The theory behind the application of the toll rings is explored through the case studies. Despite all the projects being implemented by similar networks, each scheme developed its own individual characteristics. These are laid alongside the economic and transport benefits with which they have been associated. The Strategic Policy Niche Management framework is used to analyse various aspects of the toll projects and identify key lessons. The effect these might have on future UK projects is also discussed.     

Modelling requirements for local transport plans: An assessment of English experience

The aim of the paper is to provide a number of recommendations for use of transport and land use planning models in the formulation of local transport plans. It is based on a study of Local Transport Plans (LTPs) in England. LTPs are required by central government (Department for Transport) as part of its process of allocating funds to local authorities. The first round of LTPs was carried out in 1999–2000 for the period 2001–2005. The next round, covering the period 2006–2011, has been developed in 2005–2006. The study reported here was designed to provide input to the guidance for this second round of LTPs. The research was carried out in two stages, the first being a review of current guidance, publicly available Local Transport Plans and other relevant material, the second being a series of case study interviews with five local authorities. From these two processes, a number of recommendations on modelling requirements and use of models were put forward classified by type of local authority, with respect to the geographical area for which it is responsible. The implications of these recommendations are discussed in the light of subsequent experience in the preparation of the second round of LTPs. The paper includes discussion on how these recommendations might be transferred to non-English contexts.     

Urban rail operators in Turkey: Organisational reform in transit service provision and the impact on planning,operation and system performance

Many cities around the world have seen efforts to restructure the provision of public transport. While transit authorities as public agencies continue to deliver transit services in some cities, many others have privatised these services, have opened up the market to private operators or have outsourced them to newly founded subsidiaries. The situation is no different in Turkey, where new legislation was enacted in the 1980s enabling local authorities to establish corporate companies under their own agency, and to shift to them the entire responsibility for running certain public transport operations. The motivation is often to increase efficiency, productivity and profitability in these operations, although there is a risk that planning and operation may become fragmented under such organisational reforms, making it difficult to maintain coordination in planning and to ensure the provision of an integrated service. This paper analyses this organisational change in public transport in Turkey, focusing on the planning, operation and performance of urban rail systems in Ankara, Istanbul and Izmir.     

The interplay of formal and informal institutions between local and regional authorities when creating well-functioning public transport systems

This paper analyzes how public transport planning is managed in institutional contexts where governance is spread across local and regional scales. The paper sheds light on two facets of the relationship between local and regional government: first, the decision-making process regarding where to provide public transport services and at what level, and second, integration of public transport with land use planning. An analytical matrix is used to cross-reference the roles of formal institutions (governance established in law) and informal institutions (governance not established in law) against local and regional responsibilities for public transport and land use. Analysis of the interplay between these three axes (formal/informal, local/regional, public transport/land use) reveals how informal institutions help regional and local authorities to negotiate the constraints of formal, statutory institutions and help to “oil the wheels” of delivering measures and policies that make public transport work as a well-functioning system. However, informal institutions clearly have their limits, in the paper exemplified by the remaining challenges to integrate regional public transport and local land use planning. An identified challenge is that, by their very nature, informal institutions are difficult to influence or modify, therefore relying on them to fill gaps in formal institutional responsibilities may be a risky strategy when unpopular decisions are made.     

Performance targets in transport policy

The measurement of performance in the public sector has become increasingly important in recent years and it is now commonplace for transport organisations, and local and national governments, to publish performance goals for service supply and quality. Such commitments, when time referenced, are known as targets. This paper, explains how changes in management style, consumer rights legislation, contractual obligations and other factors have combined to make management-by-targets increasingly common in the public sector. The advantages and disadvantages of management-by-targets are illustrated through discussion of the processes and experience of setting transport targets in UK national transport policy. We conclude that while some of the targets have had a significant impact on policy makers, managers and their agents, the effects have not always been as intended.     

A case study of flexible solutions to transport demand in a deregulated environment

Since public transport deregulation in the UK the provision of solutions to transport demand in areas of dispersed demand has been met by local authorities’ attempts to “fill gaps” in the commercial public transport network, whilst the voluntary sector has addressed the needs of more specialised travel. Over the last five years more innovative solutions have been enabled by the development of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS), which allow more flexible transport services in terms of time and space. In addition, new ways of thinking about the provision of what might be considered public transport has led to more flexible transport modes becoming available, permitting the general public on education contract services, the use of taxis for shared public transport and the provision of vehicles enabling access to work. However, these innovations tend to operate independently leading to overlap, gaps and misunderstandings about the purpose, delivery and receipt of services. To address these issues, future public transport services will need wider area network planning, greater co-operation between service providers (e.g. in the form of partnerships) and improved understanding of passenger requirements. The case study of Northumberland presented in this paper embodies many of the problems faced by residents in rural areas of the UK to-day and illustrates diverse solutions that have been made to address these challenges.     

Selecting tram links for priority treatments - The Lorenz Curve approach

Road and public transport authorities often have a difficult task in deciding which road links to select for investment in preferential traffic and public transport measures to improve public transport service performance. This paper presents a new approach which adopts the economic concept of the Lorenz Curve to compare link performance in terms of transit operations as well as weighted passenger volume of travel. The paper explores if, and how, these metrics can be re-interpreted to help with targeting improvements for on-road public transport and priority mitigations. The approach collates operational performance data, in this case link speed and also link public transport travel volume to plot the cumulative distribution of link speed/ridership performance as a curve. Two sets of test applications are presented; on a route level basis and secondly a network level analysis. The network level results present the most powerful results with the Lorenz Curve analysis able to quickly identify links that justify greater attention for preferential treatments since they have the worst 20th percentile of operational performance but the highest 40th percentile of relative link ridership. Mapping shows the problem links to be busy routes leading into the central city. Implications for wider application of these methods are discussed.     

A strategic planning methodology

The aim of this paper is to develop a method for strategic transport planning, which can be applied from the local up to the international level. A newly developed strategic transport plan is verified in comparison to four strategic transport plans, i.e. on the national level: Austria's Generalverkehrsplan-Österreich 2002, the German Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2003, and from Switzerland the Sachplan Schiene/öV [BAV, 2002. Sachplan Schiene/öV—Konzeptteil (Teile I bis IV and Anhänge)—Vernehmlassungsentwurf, September 2002, Bern, Schweiz, Bundesamt für Verkehr] and the Sachplan Strasse [Astra, 2002. Der Sachplan Strasse, September 2002, Bern, Bundesamt für Strassen, Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung]; on the international level, the EU White paper on transport policy [European Commission, 2001. White paper—European transport policy for 2010: time to decide. Technical Report, EU]. The methodology is based on a combination of control theory and hierarchical systems theory, which the former provides a stringent-ordered structure of the complexity between objectives, measures and indicators and the latter a consistent hierarchy for the involved topics and issues. The method allows an assessment and comparison with the above mentioned plans, which is required if a consistent transport strategy should be achieved between these levels.     

The impacts of high-speed trains on British economic geography: a study of the UK’s InterCity 125/225 and its effects

The arrival of high-speed trains (HSTs) leads to unprecedented time-space effects, potentially assisting face-to-face contacts in knowledge-generating process, yet its wider spatial-economic impacts are still open to debate. This research attempts to fill in this gap with empirical evidence by studying the inter-regional impacts of upgraded British InterCity 125/225 on British economic geography over 30 years. The six study routes of London-outbound trains serving major railways stations in 26 local authorities were selected as units of analysis, with the observation of differential effects both between HSTs and non-HSTs towns and among each group of towns, to understand time-space effects of InterCity 125/225 whose potential impacts on local economic strength and knowledge intensive development. The key findings suggest that the differential HST effects on British economic geography could be classified into three influential zones, namely 1-h, 2-h, and over-2-h towns. HST has had substantial and demonstrable effects in aiding this transition within a 2-h travel limit of London, thus helping to generate renewed economic growth, but that the effects have not been automatic or universal. Regarding future British HST policy, the implications arising from this study is that cities connected to a new HST could seize opportunities which non-HST cities will not be able to do so, but this is not a zero-sum situation. Instead, it involves a national strategy to develop a hierarchical network with HST between London and key regional hubs, well integrated at these hubs with intra-regional transport systems. This indicates a strong case for a finer-grained and deeper probing analysis at an intra-regional level of the potential for rail improvement as an agent of change in city-region development. We hope to report further on this in a subsequent paper.     

Regional policy issues for rail freight services

This paper presents some of the results of the shortlines research project for Ademe (French agency for the environment) and Predit (French support program for surface transport research). The paper focuses on France, and makes some comparisons with North America and Germany. It is organized in two parts. The first part analyses the notion of “short line” freight railways in the European context. We observe that to date, unlike short lines in North America, which have mostly sought cooperation with major railways, the new rail operators in Europe are competing with the majors. The second part discusses regional policies on rail freight transport. We observe that for some time, local governments in France have been afraid that the on-going reduction of regional rail freight services will increase truck traffic and environmental impacts. Today, however, these governments appear to be more reluctant to promote rail freight activities than they were a few years ago. The current conditions under which local lines operate in Europe and especially in France, including small capacity on the infrastructure and high cost of labor and low productivity, may explain this reluctance.     

Lessons from travel planning and road user charging for policy-making: through imperfection to implementation

In 1978 Gunn published a seminal paper which explained why implementation of policy is so difficult. The paper set out 10 conditions, which should be satisfied if perfect implementation is to be achieved. Whilst it is clear that perfect implementation is not possible in the real world, and Gunn has subsequently been criticised for his ‘top-down’ approach to decision-making, these conditions do, nonetheless act as an effective framework through which to evaluate good practice in the implementation of urban transport policy instruments. Two urban transport policy instruments, which form an increasingly important element of the Government's strategy in the UK for reducing the demand for private transport as set out in a New Deal for Transport (DETR, 1998), are travel plans and road user charging. Travel plans are a relatively recent policy instrument in the UK and seek to reduce trips to work by car by providing, through individual employers, a targeted, integrated package of incentives and disincentives to influence commuters' choice of mode of travel to and from the workplace. Road user charging, whereby motorists are charged for the road space they use in urban areas, seeks to reduce the congestion problem via the price mechanism, and has a longer history in the UK. To date the implementation of travel plans in the UK has been more widespread than that of road user charging. It is fair to say, however, that the widespread implementation of both urban transport policy instruments is a complex and sensitive area for decision-makers.The aim of this paper is firstly, to analyse travel plans and road user charging in the UK with respect to the conditions for perfect implementation put forward by Gunn and secondly, to highlight the elements of good practice, pertinent to the implementation of road user charging, in the process of the implementation of travel plans. Overall, the paper uses Gunn's theoretical framework as a basis for recommendations for better decision-making that will aid the wider implementation of both travel plans and road user charging internationally.     

Establishment of transport authorities in local sphere of government in South Africa: unfolding of the process

As part of the political restructuring process in South Africa, transport legislation was approved during 2000 allocating new transport functions to new independent transport authorities, thus providing local sphere of government with a new range of powers and responsibilities. This article focuses on some international models for transport authorities, a brief historical perspective on the background to the South African situation, a summary of the legislated provisions that are relevant to transport authorities, followed by a few local case studies to illustrate the initial concepts that have emerged during preliminary investigations in South Africa. The article concludes with a discussion of anticipated problem areas.     

Policy integration: What will it take to achieve more sustainable transport solutions in cities?

There has been a rhetorical shift in paradigm from predict and provide for road transport to one which addresses sustainable mobilities. This paper explores the organizational and institutional issues of policy integration and the implementation mechanisms which could bring about a sustainable transport system predicated on the reduction of CO₂ emissions and non-renewable resource use and which produces more socially equitable outcomes. The paper first outlines the English policy context in terms of responsibilities, powers and resources available to local transport planners, and identifies the tools of government that can be more efficiently applied to effect a more sustainable transport system which specifically reduces CO₂ emissions. A snapshot of transport decision-making in five local transport authorities in England is presented, using a case study methodology, which explores the joint working practices of practitioners in five public policy sectors that influence accessibility patterns. The case study highlights the norms and values of the local public administrators who affect local transport mobility and how they in turn are hindered both by the rigidity of central government direction and an insufficiency of implementation tools.     

Environmental and economic development issues in the Polish motorway programme: some findings on local authority attitudes

This paper assesses the relative value attached by Polish local authorities to the development of motorways, as opposed to other national roads. It presents the findings of a survey, (the first of its kind) designed to record attitudes to these plans (which have changed with each successive government). The results are analysed in light of the on-going debate about environmental/economic development issues, polarised also along party lines. Previous analysis of media debate is re-visited. The degree of collaboration between gminas and the Ministry of Transport is explored, but found to be limited. The priorities of most local authorities are local economic development, and the quantity and quality of non-motorway roads are seen at least as important as the construction of new motorways.     

Analysing transport corridor policies: An integrative approach to spatial and social disparities in India

Although strategies to create transport corridor are prevalent in the global South, there is a lack of empirical research to evaluate these initiatives, in particular whether they have realised their general goal of reducing regional disparities. The current paper describes a multi-method approach involving spatial and non-spatial analysis to investigate spatial disparity along a proposed corridor and examine its integration within the existing settlement structure. The analytical framework is tested on India’s Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor. A rationale is developed to enable a critical view of corridor policies as strategies for development in the global South.One important finding regarding policies on transport corridors is the risk that future growth will remain concentrated in districts directly linked to a proposed corridor, leaving peripheral areas marginalised. An integrative analysis of current spatial and social disparities in India shows growth to be high in areas with good accessibility between urban and rural areas. Specifically, growth in rural areas is fostered by the availability of good road network, and polytechnic and vocational institutions, whereas in urban areas, growth is positively associated with the provision of secondary schools. In order to prevent or even reduce disparities, this research recommends that spatial strategies be developed with mechanisms to enable their implementation by lower tiers of governments, that spatial plans and infrastructure outlays be reformed to improve accessibility between proposed corridors and peripheral areas, and that accessibility indicators be included in the design and implementation of transport development policies.     

The distinction between commercial and non-commercial bus services in Germany: Given by nature?

German public transport services by bus are characterized by a regulatory framework that distinguishes between commercial and non-commercial services. Contrary to the apparent views of legislators, this paper shows that costs and revenues are not the only parameters determining whether or not operators are able to provide services in a commercially viable way.Apart from the local characteristics of the specific service, we show that the classification of services as commercial versus non-commercial is determined in large part by the public transport authorities that set minimum quality standards to be provided by operators. Our analysis shows that the authorities awarding the contracts in some cases affect market organization significantly depending on how they make use of this power. Furthermore, market organization differs substantially with respect to the awarding structure and the contractual relationships, thus creating a challenge for operators and authorities in an embryonic market.