Collective action for smallholder market access

The opportunity for smallholders to raise their incomes increasingly depends on their ability to compete in the market; yet there are many failures in rural markets in developing countries that make it difficult for them to do this. Understanding how collective action can help address the inefficiencies, coordination problems or barriers to market access is particularly important. This paper draws on the case studies in this special issue and on other literature to examine the conceptual issues and empirical evidence on the role of collective action institutions in improving market access for the rural poor. Applying insights from studies of collective action in natural resource management, the paper examines what conditions facilitate effective producer organizations for smallholders’ market access, with special attention to the characteristics of user groups, institutional arrangements, types of products (staples, perishables and other commodities), markets (local, domestic and international), and external environment. The paper also identifies policies and interventions that facilitate collective action for market access among smallholders, and examines whether the public sector, private sector and/or civil society is best positioned to provide such interventions.     

电玩具国际市场准入研究

电玩具的安全性,一直都备受关注,各进口国都制定了电玩具相关的法规、标准及合格评定要求,以确保该国进口电玩具的安全。了解和熟悉各个国家对电玩具的市场准入要求,对促进我国电玩具企业出口具有重要意义。本文介绍了电玩具的三大分类,电玩具的国际标准和各国玩具标准中对电玩具的电安全性能和电磁兼容要求以及电玩具合格评定要求等,以期为电玩具企业提供参考。     

世界石油市场十年回顾与展望

过去10年,国际石油市场剧烈动荡,油价大起大落。全球经济经历了时间长于以往的扩张期,新兴国家的石油需求迅猛增长,亚太地区吸引了越来越多的石油资源。油价上涨在表现出明显的＂需求驱动＂特征的同时,其影响因素也呈复杂化和多元化的趋势。由于上游投资不足,供需基本面出现严重的紧平衡。在经历了2008年的金融危机之后,随着经济刺激计划的实施以及世界经济的逐步复苏,全球经济将迎来又一轮的景气周期。展望未来,发展中国家的石油需求量有望在近年超过发达国家,全球需求和贸易重心东移的势头更加明显;石油供应日益集中在少数国家,其潜在的政治风险将带来供应增长的不确定性。石油的概念将发生演变,并扩展至天然气凝析液、生物燃料、天然气合成油和煤制油等,导致整体石油品质变轻以及中间馏分油供需矛盾加剧。油价总体水平将继续走高,但由于金融监管加强,油价的大幅异常波动可能会受到抑制。未来油价底限取决于石油边际成本,上限取决于替代能源成本;油价本身的变动最终取决于剩余产能以及供需面。     

世界石油市场十年回顾与展望

过去10年,国际石油市场剧烈动荡,油价大起大落。全球经济经历了时间长于以往的扩张期,新兴国家的石油需求迅猛增长,亚太地区吸引了越来越多的石油资源。油价上涨在表现出明显的"需求驱动"特征的同时,其影响因素也呈复杂化和多元化的趋势。由于上游投资不足,供需基本面出现严重的紧平衡。在经历了2008年的金融危机之后,随着经济刺激计划的实施以及世界经济的逐步复苏,全球经济将迎来又一轮的景气周期。展望未来,发展中国家的石油需求量有望在近年超过发达国家,全球需求和贸易重心东移的势头更加明显;石油供应日益集中在少数国家,其潜在的政治风险将带来供应增长的不确定性。石油的概念将发生演变,并扩展至天然气凝析液、生物燃料、天然气合成油和煤制油等,导致整体石油品质变轻以及中间馏分油供需矛盾加剧。油价总体水平将继续走高,但由于金融监管加强,油价的大幅异常波动可能会受到抑制。未来油价底限取决于石油边际成本,上限取决于替代能源成本;油价本身的变动最终取决于剩余产能以及供需面。     

中美童车玩具市场准入条件分析与对比

本文分析了与我国和美国童车玩具市场准入相关的法规和标准,并对中美童车玩具法规和标准进行了对比,为我国童车玩具出口贸易相关企业、政府部门、检测机构提供技术支撑和政策借鉴。     

2009年全球汽油市场分析

因经济恶化,2008年全球汽油需求出现负增长。2008年全球汽油供应为2196万桶／日,需求为2207万桶／日,缺口由上年的34万桶／日缩小至10万桶／日。北美、中东、拉美和非洲存在汽油缺口,欧洲和欧亚地区供应过剩。2008年美国汽油需求由上年的929万桶／日降至897万桶／日,净进口量也由上年的100万桶／日以上下降至90．3万桶／日。预计2009年美国汽油消费将微升0．7％,至903万桶／日,但汽油市场依旧疲软。关国是欧洲汽油的传统出口市场,受前者市场低迷影响,欧洲汽油将不得不寻求其他出口市场。预计2009年欧洲汽油将过剩117万桶／日。2009年亚太地区炼厂新增一次炼油加工能力将达201万桶／日,这些新增炼油能力将对炼油毛利构成压力,并不得不寻找新的出口市场。中东地区成品油需求的快速增长成为汽油消费的新增长点。预计2009年全球汽油供应量将持平或略低于去年的水平,而需求将持续疲软,全年NYMEX RBOB与WTI价差将在8关元／桶左右的较低水平运行。全球汽油贸易格局将不再是简单的单方向路径。     

Obtaining indirect internet access: An examination how reasons for internet non-use relate to proxy internet use

Internet non-use is increasingly concentrated in vulnerable groups of people, especially among ageing populations and those with low socio-economic status. As participation in society becomes largely dependent on use of internet-enabled technologies, internet non-users may seek alternative ways of using the internet. Proxy internet use (PIU), where internet non-users ask internet users to perform online activities on their behalf, is a strategy for obtaining (indirect) internet access. This study examines factors for engagement in PIU, focusing specifically on how non-users’ reasons for disengagement relate to their engagement in PIU. The results from multivariate analyses of survey data from a nation-wide representative sample show that 47% of internet non-users in Slovenia who report having someone available for PIU in fact engage in PIU. In analysing four types of reasons for internet non-use—those related to interest, access, costs and skills—the results show that access issues are negatively related to engagement in PIU. Conversely, reasons related to skills issues are positively related to engagement in PIU. Considering that access to online services through PIU offers an important degree of digital inclusion, the results of this study have important policy implications. Policy initiatives tackling digital inequalities should be sensible to access and skills issues resulting in disengagement. For example, policies directed at providing and maintaining internet access at a household level may result in non-users’ increased opportunities for PIU. In contrast, skills policies should be directed at creating opportunities for informal and person-centred learning of digital skills, considering that non-users who are more aware of their deficiency in skills might be more aware of online opportunities.     

我国玩具产品出口现状与国际市场准入研究

我国是全球最大的玩具出口国和生产国,如何在激烈的市场竞争中生存和发展,进一步增强我国玩具出口竞争力是我国玩具出口现在面临的主要问题。本文介绍了我国玩具出口的发展现状,深入剖析制约我国玩具出口的因素,进而提出突破玩具出口瓶颈的对策,包括建设和完善玩具国际市场准入数据库、实施产品出口多元化战略、优化产品出口结构等措施,从而提高我国玩具出口的竞争力,探索出一条适合我国玩具产业可持续发展的道路。     

澳大利亚工程服务市场准入制度分析与启示

建筑市场准入制度的建立和完善,关系到建筑业健康持续的发展和社会公众的利益。文章通过对澳大利亚等国家建设工程专业人员注册管理和市场准入制度的研究,从注册管理和市场准入的目的和两者的关系、注册管理机构的性质和工作、政府和行业协会的角色和作用等方面进行了分析,归纳了这些国家在注册管理和市场准入领域内的若干习惯做法,以资我国建筑市场准入制度完善的参考。     

Farmer organization,collective action and market access in Meso-America

Farmer organization and collective action are often seen as key factors in enhancing farmers’ access to markets. Often, too little attention is directed at (a) the most appropriate types of organization; (b) whether organization makes less or more sense in the case of producers of an undifferentiated commodity or a higher value product; (c) whether the public or private sector is best placed to support farmer organizations; and (d) the conditions necessary for ensuring their economic viability. Research in Mexico and Central America explored these issues for commodity maize and high value vegetables, respectively. The benefits of farmer organization are more evident in the vegetable sector, characterized by high transaction costs associated with market access. However, horticultural farmer organizations in Honduras and El Salvador include less than 5% of total horticultural producers. This is possibly due to farmer organizations’ limited business skills and non-replicable organizational models. There is less incentive for maize farmers to organize to access output markets as the transaction costs are relatively low. The benefits of maize farmer organization are clearer when it comes to accessing inputs such as credit, seed and fertilizer. Farmer organization is a critical factor in making markets work for the poor, but the role and timing of public and private investment in these organizations is poorly understood.     

2009年世界石油市场回顾与2010年展望

2009年,国际油价呈现宽幅波动上升态势,波动范围为35～80美元/桶,预计年内均价将超过60美元/桶.2009年世界石油市场的主要特点:1)WTI与布伦特原油价格倒挂日渐频繁;2)轻质原油和重质原油价差缩小;3)石油的金融属性更加明显,投机商继续青睐石油期货市场;4)欧佩克减产履约率呈现前高后低走势,剩余产能大幅增加;6)石油库存水平居高不下.2010年,全球经济将出现曲折缓慢的复苏态势,基础仍然十分脆弱;石油供需尚显宽松;全球库存和剩余产能将维持较高水平;金融因素仍将是影响2010年油价走势的突出因素.预计2010年油价上升是主基调,全年均价为70～80美元/桶.鉴于世界经济发展前景的不确定性依然很大,油价在未来一段时间将以区间波动为主.     

2009年全球油气并购市场回暖

受2008年下半年金融危机和油价大幅下跌影响,全球油气并购市场呈现＂先急剧降温,后逐步回升＂的走势。2009年以来,随着全球金融市场趋于稳定,油价稳步上升,各方谨慎的心态有所缓解,市场并购交易有所增加。     

2021年全球液化天然气市场特点及发展趋势

2021年全球液化天然气（LNG）市场呈现五大特点。一是全球天然气资源丰富,勘探开发潜力巨大,非常规天然气发展前景广阔;二是LNG贸易量价齐升,全年贸易量、亚太与欧洲市场LNG价格均创历史新高;三是现货与再出口贸易持续增加,市场流动性与灵活性不断提升;四是再汽化能力增幅创新高,LNG项目投资决策提速;五是碳中和LNG贸易船次倍增,引起行业内广泛关注。受碳达峰碳中和政策影响,未来天然气重要性更加凸显;全球LNG产能快速增长,需求增速不确定性较大;2025年前后市场供应或将宽松,LNG短期价格或将回落,长期价格将取决于新项目全周期成本。在碳达峰碳中和背景下,中国天然气需求将进一步扩大,应统筹做好“国产气与进口气、管道气与LNG、多气源之间、长期合同与现货”四个平衡,加速LNG海外资源池构建,逐步完善LNG产业链,提升一体化盈利能力,确保天然气安全供应。     

Wholesale market definition in telecommunications: The issue of wholesale broadband access

The scope of a wholesale market may, in addition to demand- and supply-side substitution at the wholesale level, also be determined by substitution patterns at the retail level. Considering wholesale broadband access markets, it is argued that each of these forces can be strong enough to render a 5–10% price increase by a hypothetical monopolist at the wholesale level unprofitable and thus may lead to a wider wholesale market definition including, for example, cable networks in addition to DSL. Based on the theory of derived demand elasticities the paper discusses under which circumstances this could be the case. The position of the European Commission and the practice of national regulatory authorities are then reviewed in light of these arguments.     

Toward universal telephone access: Market progress and progress beyond the market

The last 10 years have seen an explosion in access to telephone services worldwide based on rapid technology advance in increasingly competitive markets. The mobile phone has driven expansion in subscribers and access, especially in the developing world. This paper estimates global mobile footprint coverage based on 2002 data and calculates that as much as 77 percent of the world's population may live in an area covered by a mobile signal. Nonetheless, many people remain without access to telephony. The paper estimates the maximum likely cost in terms of cross subsidy within the industry and outside financing for achieving universal access using competitively awarded subsidies to private providers in a reformed market. This upper-end cost is estimated at $5.7 billion, with costs that could not be supplied by a reasonable tax on existing providers (and so required from outside the sector) estimated at $1.8 billion.     

全球石脑油市场供需、贸易流向分析及中国采购建议

2011年,受美国经济复苏乏力、欧债危机加剧,以及乙烷、轻烃等替代原料用量增加的影响,石脑油的需求受到抑制,需求量同比略有下降,为23682万吨;供应量为22535万吨。未来全球石脑油总体仍将保持供应不足的态势,其中亚太、北美地区供应存在缺口;中东地区供应过剩;欧洲地区轻质石脑油供应不足,重质石脑油过剩。未来几年中国石脑油进口量将逐年增加,中国贸易公司应积极参与中东供货商的长期合同谈判,密切关注印度招标情况,并在欧洲-亚洲套利窗口开放时探索将欧洲石脑油套利到区内的可行性。     

Development and perspectives on supply and demand in the global hard coal market

The year 2007 was filled with record high prices and extreme volatility levels for many commodities and the global coal and freight markets were no exception. Naturally this opens up a discussion of what may be the root causes for the extreme price developments, and whether they can be attributed, wholly or partly to a change in supply and demand within the seaborne hard coal market, a lack of investment or a changing market structure. This paper takes a closer look at these topics building upon the earlier analytical methods and previous work of H. Gruss (1989–2003) and C. Kopal (2006–2007) published in the Zeitschrift für Energiewirtschaft.     

Innovation,R&D productivity,and global market share in the pharmaceutical industry

In this paper, we estimate two empirical models using a pooled, cross-section sample of international pharmaceutical firms for the period 1987 to 1989. The first model tests the relationship between R&D productivity and a vector of firm-specific characteristics. The second model tests the determinants of global market share. The empirical analysis reveals three findings. First, we find evidence that there are diminishing returns in the pharmaceutical R&D process. Second, we find that firm size has a positive effect on average R&D productivity and a positive impact on the marginal R&D productivity for plausible R&D staff sizes. And third, we find evidence that R&D productivity and the number of sales employees have a positive effect on the firm's global market share.The views presented in this paper reflect those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. International Trade Commission or any of its individual commissioners. We thank William Comanor, Daniel Gropper, Daniel Hamermesh, Susan Pozo, Paul Thistle, and Mark Wheeler for their comments and suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper. We assume all responsibility for any errors contained herein.     

西方国家军事干预利比亚对全球石油市场的影响

3月17日,联合国安理会以10票赞成、5票弃权的结果通过了关于在利比亚设立禁飞区的第1973号决议,决定对利比亚卡扎菲政权实施第二轮制裁。