Tourism,Trams and Local Government Policy-making in Christchurch,New Zealand

This paper examines the role of local government and the nature of the policy-making process in urban tourism through a detailed analysis of the development of the Christchurch tourist tramway. The basic issues addressed are why and how a tourist tramway was developed in Christchurch and what was the development and policy process. A detailed chronology of events is established through the analysis of archival material, newspaper accounts and interviews with key personnel. The analysis and interpretation centres on understanding what was driving the tramway development process. Emphasis is given to identifying key factors and events, the tourism arguments used, and the interests of the different parties involved. The process is shown to be ad hoc and incremental, with the development of the tramway being part of broader urban processes and policies. Tourism is frequently used to rationalise other interests, notably a desire amongst enthusiasts to see trams running once more on the city's streets. In many respects, the Christchurch case reflects broader issues elsewhere.     

Earthquake-induced transportation disruption and economic performance: The experience of Christchurch,New Zealand

The 2010–2011 Christchurch (Canterbury) Earthquakes in New Zealand caused considerable harm, damage and disruption to the lives and livelihoods of residents. Our study examines the role earthquake-related failures in the transportation network played in post-earthquake economic performance, including during the immediate recovery phase. We use detailed (neighbourhood-level) spatial data on both transportation disruptions and economic activity, and how they have spatially and temporally varied across the city in the years prior to and following the earthquakes. We find that the impacts of transportation breakdowns on economic activity was observable and significant and has likely gone beyond areas that experienced direct damage due to the network nature of transport and the locational nature of business.     

Are commuting patterns a good indicator of urban spatial structure?

Commuting patterns can be recognized by examining urban spatial structure. The latter can also be identified through the investigation of the former. This paper examines how well commuting patterns reflect the corresponding urban spatial structure. For this purpose, locational variables for commuting trip origin and destination are derived and included in an adjusted gravity model. The sign and the magnitude of the coefficients of those variables are interpreted along with the associated urban spatial structure. For a more formal comparison, urban density functions are estimated. Commuting data from the Seoul Metropolitan Region in 1987, 1990, and 1995 are used for an empirical analysis. The result shows that the distribution of employment is consistent between the spatial structure projected from the commuting patterns and the urban density distribution, while the distribution of employed residents is not, suggesting that the latter case should be interpreted with more caution.     

Disability,wages, and commuting in New York

In the U.S., substantial employment and wage gaps persist between workers with and without disabilities. A lack of accessible transportation is often cited as a barrier to employment in higher wage jobs for people with disabilities, but little is known about the intraurban commuting patterns of employed people with disabilities in relation to their wage earnings. Our study compares wages and commute times between workers with and without disabilities in the New York metropolitan region and identifies the intraurban zones where residents experience higher inequities in wage earnings and commute times. We obtained our data from the Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) of the American Community Survey (ACS) for the 2008–2012 time period. We used linear mixed-effects models and generated separate models with log hourly wage or one-way commute time as the dependent variable. We find significant differences in wages and commute times between workers with and without disabilities at the scale of the metropolitan region as well as by intraurban zone. At the metropolitan scale, disabled workers earn 16.6% less and commute one minute longer on average than non-disabled workers. High commute and wage inequalities converge in the center, where workers with disabilities are more likely to use public transit, earn 17.1% less, and travel nearly four minutes longer on average than workers without disabilities. These results suggest that transport options are less accessible and slower for disabled workers than they are for non-disabled workers. Our findings indicate a need for more accessible and quicker forms of transportation in the center along with an increased availability of centrally located and affordable housing to reduce the disability gap in wages and commute times. We also find that workers with disabilities generally seek higher wages in exchange for longer commute times, but the results differ by race/ethnicity and gender. Compared to white men, minority workers earn much less, and white and Hispanic women have significantly shorter commute times. Our findings offer new geographic insights on how having a disability can influence wage earnings and commute times for workers in different intraurban zones in the New York metropolitan region.     

Impact of the jobs-housing balance on urban commuting in Beijing in the transformation era

This empirical study examines the impact of the jobs-housing balance on individual commuting time in Beijing in the period of transformation of the Chinese economy and society. The results of the analysis show that the jobs-housing balance has a statistically significant association with a worker’s commuting time when the factors of transport accessibility, population density and worker’s socioeconomic characteristics are controlled. The higher the jobs-housing balance, the shorter the worker’s commuting time. The finding suggests that the jobs-housing balance still has significant implications for commuting time, although the recent market-oriented reforms in housing are changing the jobs-housing balance in the danwei system that prevailed in the socialist era. As the housing markets are imperfect, with strong government intervention in Beijing, the finding implies that the co-location hypothesis - which believes development management would create ‘barriers’ to a jobs-housing balance and increase commuting time - needs to be rethought before it can be generalized and applied to China’s cities. The results of the analysis also show that the workers living in danwei housing still have shorter commuting time. The finding indicates that the housing marketization is likely to induce a local jobs-housing imbalance and thereby increase commuting time. In this sense, a deterioration in the jobs-housing imbalance and increased commuting time in Beijing may owe much to the adoption of market-based housing supply.     

Job growth,accessibility, and changing commuting burden of employment centres in Melbourne

How transport and employment agglomeration enhance urban productivity is a fundamental problem for many cities. Internationally, there has been a great deal of interest in the effect of employment concentration on urban productivity, but very few studies have examined its effect on worker commuting burdens and transport costs. This paper aims to advance international knowledge by measuring job growth and costs of labour market access between 2011 and 2016 for employment centres (EC) in Melbourne, Australia. A comprehensive transport cost model is used that incorporates detailed transport costs and travel times associated with transport modes. By tracking job growth and changes in worker commuting burdens, this paper distinguishes ‘high-cost’ ECs from ‘low-cost’ ECs, for their respective labour pools, and identifies which ECs offer opportunities for better transport outcomes. The results show that well-planned public transport (PT) systems and residential development, coupled with walking and cycle networks, are important features of ECs experiencing lower commuting burdens. Drawing upon the conclusions, this research recommends more effective approaches by governments to foster effective investments in urban infrastructure and discusses how broader policy and investment decisions can align to optimise employment agglomeration and minimise negative transport impacts.     

Unveiling large-scale commuting patterns based on mobile phone cellular network data

In this study, with Estonia as an example,we established an approach based on Hidden Markov Model to extract large-scale commuting patterns at different geographical levels using a massive amount of mobile phone cellular network data, which is referred to as Call detail record (CDR). The proposed model is designed for reconstructing and transforming the trajectories extracted from the CDR data. This step allowed us to perform origin-destination matrix extraction among different geographical levels, which helped in depicting the commuting patterns. Besides, we introduced different techniques for analyzing the commuting at the urban level. Our results unveiled that there is great potential behind mobile data of the cellular networks after transforming it into meaningful mobility patterns. That can easily be used for understanding urban dynamics, large-scale daily commuting and mobility. The aggressive development and growth of ubiquitous mobile sensing have generated valuable data that can be used with our approach for providing answers and solutions to the growing problems of transportation, urbanization and sustainability.     

The link between urban development and the modal split in commuting: the case of Biscay

This paper presents an empirical analysis of the links between different land use patterns and the modal split in commuting. The analysis is conducted at municipal level, based on data on land use and mobility characteristics of the de-urbanisation process in Biscay, a small European province, from 1991 to 2001. The links are assessed by means of multiple regression analysis, in which specific techniques of spatial econometrics are applied in order to avoid biased results and unreliable inferences due to spatial dependence. The findings reveal, at municipal level, the importance of gross population density, geographic concentration of the population and, to a lesser extent, the ratio of jobs to residents in explaining the modal split in commuting, and the influence of access to public transport. It is also shown that public transport services have spillover effects that extend beyond the limits of the municipality and encourage use in adjacent areas.     

The dynamics of modal shifts in (sub)urban commuting: An empirical analysis based on practice theories

A modal shift away from the private car onto low-carbon transport modes is an essential part of decarbonising the transport sector. The dynamics of modal shifts are, however, not yet well understood. In particular the interrelations between structural and individual dynamics require further investigation. Furthermore, a better understanding is needed of how new transport modes become integrated into existing mobility practices. In this article, we address these questions in a qualitative study of modal shifts in (sub)urban commuting in three major Swiss cities. We analysed the interview data by means of a qualitative content analysis informed by practice theories. We found that modal shifts can arise i) from dynamics related to the conditions of use of different transport modes, ii) the coordination of everyday mobility with other people, iii) the coordination of resources between different daily practices, and iv) from dynamics related to the intrinsic motivation of everyday mobility. We found that these different dynamics are intertwined and that to understand how modal shifts arise, they must be analysed conjointly, rather than in isolation. And we identified three patterns in how modal shifts play out, and which describe different ways in which the new transport mode becomes integrated into everyday mobility practices. The first pattern describes modal shifts which require no adaptation of existing commuting practices. The second pattern describes modal shifts after which a new everyday mobility routine must be built. And the third pattern describes modal shifts that coincide with a lifestyle change. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for decarbonising everyday mobility.     

The perceived risks of local climate change in Queenstown,New Zealand

Place-embedded, resource-dependent industries are increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The scientific framing of these risks can be understood through modelling; however, risks are perceived by non-scientific communities in more culturally relevant and localised frames. This empirical study utilised qualitative, semi-structured interviews with four stakeholder groups connected to the ski industry in Queenstown, New Zealand. The objectives of this research were to identify current scientific knowledge on climate change risks to Queenstown's ski industry and to critically address how the risk of climate change is perceived. This paper reports three main findings: (1) scientific reporting and expert interviews expect climate change to manifest as inter-annual variability up to the 2050s, (2) current climatic variability is perceived to be the greatest risk to the ski industry at present and (3) climate change is perceived to be distant and a greater threat to other people and other places giving rise to ‘optimistic bias’.     

Tourism distribution channels in Wellington,New Zealand

This paper outlines a multiple method approach used in Wellington as a way of researching issues of distribution channels for tourism in urban areas. The study combines information obtained from interviews with providers and intermediaries, visitor surveys and the analysis of catalogues to present a systematic examination of distribution channels for a range of accommodation and attractions. The results highlight the complexity of distribution channels in Wellington, with variations occurring by market segment and by type of accommodation and attractions. Chain hotels have the most complex channels. Smaller properties and attractions tend to pursue simpler ‘at destination’ distribution strategies. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of urban sprawl and commuting: a modelling study for Italy

This paper aims to analyse empirically the intricate relationship between urban sprawl and commuting, a process that started a few decades ago in Italy. Using a mobility impact index based on commuting data for 1981 and 1991, we quantify the impact of commuting for seven major Italian urban areas, comprising in total 739 municipalities (communes). Our modelling experiment highlights the effect of sprawl at the commune level, while taking into account the variability of communes across geographical location and level of polycentrism. Causal relationships between spatial developments and explanatory factors related to changes in urban density are analysed using multivariate cross-section regression analysis and Causal Path Analysis (CPA). Our empirical results confirm the expectation that sprawl is accompanied by intensive travel movements and associated environmental effects.     

The impact of the minimum driver licensing age on mobility in New Zealand

In the year to August 2002, 15% of the New Zealand road toll was attributed to 15–19 year-old drivers. This is the highest percent of casualties by any five-year age group, with the motor vehicle accident risk peaking at 16 years of age. New Zealand has the highest road accident statistic for this age group in the motorised world. It has been proposed that the driver licensing age be raised from 15 to 17 years of age. A 1998 Parliamentary Select Committee rejected the final proposal of a minimum driver licensing age of 16, on the grounds that such a rise would disadvantage rural youth through less accessible employment, educational facilities, social, and recreational activity, due to inadequate transport alternatives. This paper presents the results of research that examined the impact of the minimum driver licensing age on youth mobility. High school students were surveyed through interviews, questionnaires and travel diaries. It was concluded that the social benefits of raising the minimum driver licensing age to 17 years of age outweighed the social benefits of the status quo, as only minimal number of essential trips were totally dependent on youth acquisition of a driver licence.     

Network-based spatial interpolation of commuting trajectories: application of a university commuting management project in Kyoto,Japan

This study presents an application of network-based spatial interpolation of student commuting trajectories from a series of origin–destination trip datasets. In particular, we incorporated multimodal public transportation networks, including bus networks, to estimate the student commuting routes. The student samples for this study were collected from an online travel diary survey conducted by Ritsumeikan University in Kyoto, Japan. The ArcGIS Network Analyst was used to construct spatial network datasets and reconstruct trajectories from the origin–destination trip dataset. In addition, line densities of estimated trajectories were calculated and displayed on maps for geovisualization. These maps helped us understand the precise locations of congestion and spatial patterns of student commuting, unlike linear representations of people’s movements that connect origins and destinations. Our study also showed that estimated trajectories can simulate quantitative impacts on travel time by promoting walking or the use of public transportation.     

Impact of bus rapid transit on residential property prices in Auckland,New Zealand

Dubbed ‘The City of Cars’, congestion is a prominent issue in Auckland, New Zealand. Auckland's first Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system - the Northern Busway - was implemented in 2008. The 6.2-km (km) busway network services the northern suburbs and provides a link to the Central Business District (CBD). This research aims to assess the impact of the Northern Busway on nearby residential property values. Spatio-temporal autoregressive (STAR) modelling is used to examine the accessibility impacts of the BRT under the difference – in – differences (DID) framework alongside a typical OLS and a strictly spatial model. We have observed two main findings. Firstly, the average sale price for properties in the treatment group (within 800 m of the Northern Busway) increased by approximately 3.69% as a result of the opening of the Northern Busway. Second, consistent with previous literature, we find that OLS estimates suffer from high spatial autocorrelation bias, while co-integrating spatial and temporal dependencies within a STAR model improves the precision of estimation. While the models produced a relatively modest accessibility premium on house prices, given traditional importance of private cars coupled with high income levels in the case study area, it would take a generational shift to make a significant impact on house prices as the area becomes more desirable due to reduced traffic congestion/travel time.     

The jobs-housing relationship and commuting in Guangzhou,China: Hukou and dual structure

Jobs-housing relations and commuting have been a concern of academics and policy makers alike. Various hypotheses from the West have been tested in leading Chinese metropolises, but so far no attention has been paid to the role of hukou, a rather unique Chinese institution causing the emergence of invisible walls within cities. To address this deficiency, the present paper places hukou at the forefront in its analysis of commuting in Guangzhou and reveals that in comparison with hukou holders, non-hukou residents tend to have more balanced jobs-housing relationship, rely less on motorized transport, and spend less time on commuting than hukou holders. Furthermore, some variables have influence on commuting time for one hukou type but not the other; some other variables that have influence on both groups differ systematically in their effects.     

Commodification and Adventure in New Zealand Tourism

This paper discusses the ways in which the commodification of adventure in tourism has increasingly become implicated in the production and consumption of tourist places. It examines the notion of adventure in tourism and the changing nature of commodification in postmodern and 'post-tourist' times. The rise of adventure tourism in New Zealand is used as an example of how adventure has been commodified. A survey of tourist brochures for adventure tourism attractions in New Zealand reveals some of the particular characteristics of adventure which are being incorporated into commodity form for tourists. These characteristics include place, spectacle, embodied experience and memory. Although aware of the limitations of using textual evidence from brochures, the paper concludes that Best's (1989) society of the commodity and the society of the spectacle are clearly significant in New Zealand. Sign exchange is also important in the commodification of adventure although it is concluded that places and practices are as yet rarely eclipsed by adventure signification.