Stock and Bond Liquidity and its Effect on Prices and Financial Policies

An asset is liquid if it can be traded at the prevailing market price quickly and at low cost. We show that in addition to risk, liquidity affects asset prices and returns. Theories of asset pricing suggest that the expected return of an asset is increasing in its risk, because risk-averse investors require compensation for bearing more risk. Because investors are also averse to the costs of illiquidity and want to be compensated for bearing them, asset returns are increasing in illiquidity. Thus, asset prices should depend on two asset characteristics: risk and liquidity. This paper surveys research on the effects of liquidity on asset prices and returns, showing that liquidity is an important factor in capital asset pricing.     

Market liquidity, asset prices, and welfare

This paper represents an equilibrium model for the demand and supply of liquidity and its impact on asset prices and welfare. We show that, when constant market presence is costly, purely idiosyncratic shocks lead to endogenous demand of liquidity and large price deviations from fundamentals. Moreover, market forces fail to lead to efficient supply of liquidity, which calls for potential policy interventions. However, we demonstrate that different policy tools can yield different efficiency consequences. For example, lowering the cost of supplying liquidity on the spot (e.g., through direct injection of liquidity or relaxation of ex post margin constraints) can decrease welfare while forcing more liquidity supply (e.g., through coordination of market participants) can improve welfare.     

货币政策、同业业务与银行流动性创造

本文通过构造商业银行同业和非同业流动性创造指标,研究了货币政策对银行流动性创造的总体和结构性影响,根据商业银行参与同业业务的不同程度分析了货币政策作用的异质性,并检验了商业银行参与同业业务的影响因素。研究结果表明:第一,货币政策同时影响商业银行的流动性创造增速和结构,宽松的货币政策提高了银行总体流动性创造增速和非同业流动性创造增速,但是降低了同业流动性创造增速;第二,对参与同业业务程度不同的银行,货币政策的影响存在异质性,具体为宽松的货币政策降低了高参与度银行的同业流动性创造增速,提高了低参与度银行的同业流动性创造增速;第三,货币政策显著地改变了银行的同业资产持有比例,银行的风险越高,参与同业业务的程度越高。因此,在宏观审慎政策框架下,应该加强货币政策和金融监管的配合;运用多种货币政策工具,及时进行预调微调;进一步促进金融市场的发展,降低银行对同业业务的过度依赖。     

流动性、银行间市场摩擦与借贷便利类货币政策工具

通过内生引入流动性短缺银行(拆入行)对流动性盈余银行(拆出行)的流动性需求机制,本文构建了一个包含银行间市场的DSGE模型,对借贷便利类货币政策工具的传导机制和传导效果进行了理论和实证研究。研究表明:(1)负向冲击会同时增加拆入行和拆出行对流动性的预防性需求,在经济形势不确定的情形下,拆出行不会很快恢复对拆入行的流动性供给,引起银行间市场流动性缺口放大和市场失灵。(2)由于仅依赖银行间市场自发回归稳态的过程太过缓慢,需要央行进行流动性干预。借贷便利类工具可以通过引导贷款市场定价和流动性效应这两个渠道来影响银行融资可得性,进而降低银行间市场流动性风险对宏观经济的负面影响。(3)借贷便利类货币政策工具的影响效果边际递减,央行可根据借贷便利操作的收益和成本,制定最佳的反应程度参数。     

Liquidity risk and the cross-section of hedge-fund returns

This paper demonstrates that liquidity risk as measured by the covariation of fund returns with unexpected changes in aggregate liquidity is an important determinant in the cross-section of hedge-fund returns. The results show that funds that significantly load on liquidity risk subsequently outperform low-loading funds by about 6% annually, on average, over the period 1994–2008, while negative performance is observed during liquidity crises. The returns are independent of the liquidity a fund provides to its investors as measured by lockup and redemption notice periods, and they are also robust to commonly used hedge-fund factors, none of which carries a significant premium during the sample period. These findings highlight the importance of understanding systematic liquidity variations in the evaluation of hedge-fund performance.     

流动性、银行间市场摩擦与借贷便利类货币政策工具

通过内生引入流动性短缺银行(拆入行)对流动性盈余银行(拆出行)的流动性需求机制,本文构建了一个包含银行间市场的DSGE模型,对借贷便利类货币政策工具的传导机制和传导效果进行了理论和实证研究。研究表明:(1)负向冲击会同时增加拆入行和拆出行对流动性的预防性需求,在经济形势不确定的情形下,拆出行不会很快恢复对拆入行的流动性供给,引起银行间市场流动性缺口放大和市场失灵。(2)由于仅依赖银行间市场自发回归稳态的过程太过缓慢,需要央行进行流动性干预。借贷便利类工具可以通过引导贷款市场定价和流动性效应这两个渠道来影响银行融资可得性,进而降低银行间市场流动性风险对宏观经济的负面影响。(3)借贷便利类货币政策工具的影响效果边际递减,央行可根据借贷便利操作的收益和成本,制定最佳的反应程度参数。     

资产证券化流动性的系统协同分析

在系统协同视角下,资产证券化流动性具有三个层次,第一层次指被证券化资产的流动性,第二层次指资产支持证券的一级市场流动性,第三层次指资产支持证券的二级市场流动性,前两个层次流动性的成败最终取决于第三层次的流动性。资产证券化流动性的系统协同要素包括市场基础、工具创新以及风险监管。解决我国资产证券化流动性不足的出路在于层次和要素的系统协同。     

Capital structure and business cycles

This study investigates the relationship between business cycles and capital structure. Specifically, it extends the work of Lemmon et al. (2008) , by incorporating the effect of four different stages of the business cycle – peak, contraction, trough and expansion – on the relative importance of the unobserved permanent component of the capital structure. Results indicate that business cycles play an important role in explaining the unobserved permanent component of leverage ratios after controlling for firm fixed effects. In particular, the model becomes much stronger in explaining the variation in leverage ratios after accounting for business cycle phases.     

流动性过剩与流动性悖论

造成当前流动性过剩的一个重要原因是由于我国存在着一种"流动性悖论".而造成流动性悖论的原因又可以上溯到国内金融结构的体制性缺陷,具体包括银行体系、资本市场、人民币汇率制度和资本账户管制等四个方面的结构性问题.要根本上解决国际收支"双顺差"以及流动性悖论,长期看需要从经济与金融结构层面进行调整,近期则主要是汇率的调整,取消强制结汇制以及加强周边国家(地区)的政策协调.     

Business cycle,storage, and energy prices

This study examines the effect of the state of the economy and inventory on interest-adjusted bases and expected returns for five energy commodities. We find that interest-adjusted bases and returns have a business cycle pattern. Consistent with the theory of storage, demand shocks near business cycle peaks generate negative interest-adjusted bases and positive returns. In recessions, the bases become positive, and the average returns are negative. Our regression results also show that the interest-adjusted bases of energy commodities are counter-cyclical and the expected returns are pro-cyclical. For petroleum commodities, inventory has a significant effect on interest-adjusted bases at low levels of inventory, whereas at high inventory levels the effect of inventory on the bases is weak. Finally, we find that the bases and economic conditions predict spot returns in energy commodity markets.     

流动性幻觉与高杠杆率之谜

本文研究信用货币体系下流动性不足导致的过度投资和高杠杆率问题。文章将货币引入到消费者与银行互动的三期经济框架中,构建信用货币体系下的偏好冲击与流动性冲击模型,阐明消费者的购买力、经济投资效率和杠杆率都在一定程度上取决于流动性背后的价值支撑,而非仅由流动性的名义数量决定。本文指出,流动性的价值支撑主要体现为央行储备资产和政府财政收入,其水平决定了经济体系内短期消费的支付能力,流动性的价值支撑不足会导致过度投资和高杠杆率。进一步基于中国数据的实证分析验证了理论模型的主要结论。本文研究结果提示,在经济双循环体系下,货币政策与财政政策的协调配合尤为重要,维持央行储备资产规模并保持合理税率水平可以缓解流动性的价值支撑不足和高杠杆率问题。     

经济周期、前景理论与BHS资产定价模型修正

行为资产定价研究引起了国内外的广泛关注,但由于现实资本市场中诸多异象的存在,导致人们对经典资产定价模型的质疑。经济周期波动会对投资者的理性产生显著影响,而非理性投资可能引发金融危机。据此,引入经济周期这一独特视角,剖析前景理论对资产定价的作用机理;提出相关假设,对BHS模型进行修正,以适应经济周期影响下的行为资产定价问题研究。     

Financial constraints and continental business groups: Evidence from German Konzerns

Using a unique large panel of German firms, we examine whether participation in business groups (Konzerns) reduces the sensitivity of investment to cash flow. The main finding is that the investment sensitivity is significantly reduced for small firms. On the other hand, we do not find clear evidence that medium-sized and large firms participating in Konzerns have different sensitivity compared to that of their stand-alone counterparts. We conclude that the German business model, which embodies key elements of the continental business model, seems to alleviate capital market imperfections for medium-sized and large firms and fails to do so for small firms.     

流动性导流——中国货币需求及现阶段流动性过剩问题研究

近年来,流动性过剩成为了我国宏观经济的要害性问题.所谓"流动性导流",就是将目前过剩的流动性通过若干可能的渠道疏导到实体经济之外,使之基本不对实体经济产生负面影响.我国流动性过剩是由外向型经济结构引起的外汇过多流人造成的,在经济结构短期内难以根本改变且人民币升值预期难以根本逆转的情况下,只能从疏导过多流动性的角度来寻找防治通胀之道.具体的疏导渠道包括将一部分流动性导向境外和在境内扩大虚拟经济以吸收一部分流动性.后者是解决当前通胀压力和股市扩容压力的一箭双雕之策,也是本文的新观点所在.     

Liquidity provision,interest rates,and unemployment

The effective liquidity supply of the economy—the weighted-sum of all assets that serve as media of exchange—matters for interest rates and unemployment. We formalize this idea by adding an over-the-counter market with collateralized trades to the Mortensen–Pissarides model. An increase in public liquidity through a higher supply of real government bonds raises the real interest rate, crowding out private liquidity and increasing unemployment. If unemployment is inefficiently high, keeping liquidity scarce can be socially optimal. A liquidity crisis affecting the acceptability of private assets as collateral widens the rate-of-return difference between private and public liquidity, also increasing unemployment.     

Liquidity risk and policy options

On the basis of a liquidity management model, liquidity risks, defined as the probability of payment failures in a real-time gross settlement (RTGS) payment system, may either stem from liquidity management inefficiencies or insufficient cash balances. I will show that penalties charged on the amount of payment failures minimise liquidity risks without interfering with the bank’s technology preferences. I will instead show that liquidity requirements, although as effective as penalties to contain the risk of liquidity shortage, may distort the bank’s technology preferences and cannot stem liquidity management inefficiencies. I will also show that liquidity risks within RTGS payment systems are potentially smaller because they depend more on the liquidity management efficiency than on the randomness of cash inflows and outflows.     

Liquidity Dry-ups in equity markets

This paper examines how mutual fund investors’ demand for liquidity provision endogenously affects stock liquidity in the equity market. We find that actively managed funds in the US tend to hold less liquidity than their respective benchmarks, which leads them to rely on only a small fraction of liquid stocks when it comes to liquidity demand. Using mutual fund sell transactions, we further show that mutual funds tend to sell more liquid stocks in their holdings when experiencing outflows. Concentrated sales of liquid stocks, however, significantly reduce the liquidity of these stocks, resulting in liquidity deterioration or dry-up among highly liquid stocks in periods of high market-wide liquidity demand. Overall, the results indicate that mutual funds fail to predict the liquidity of the asset at purchase.     

流动性过剩的机理分析

流动性过剩是世界经济发展中出现的一个新问题。但流动性是什么,流动性过剩指的又是什么,国内外的学者们都有不同见解。既然流动性过剩一词是作为对世界经济运行状态的表述,则其合理的内核应该是一致的。只有弄清什么是流动性、什么是流动性过剩,我们才能对流动性过剩问题做更进一步的研究。本文以凯恩斯对流动性的理解为基础,构建了一个流动性过剩的理论框架,提出了流动性过剩的判断标准及其存在的前提条件,以此为流动性过剩的深入研究做一些有益的探讨。     

Risk and ambiguity in models of business cycles

We inject aggregate uncertainty — risk and ambiguity — into an otherwise standard business cycle model and describe its consequences. We find that increases in uncertainty generally reduce consumption, but they do not account, in this model, for either the magnitude or the persistence of the most recent recession. We speculate about extensions that might do better along one or both dimensions.     

The generation of stock market cycles

This paper demonstrates that the relation between stock market and business cycle dynamics can be conceptualized using a dividend discount model. The interaction of changes in earnings and interest rates throughout the economic cycle are shown to cause changes in the level of stock prices. This implies that monitoring and forecasting these factors can help explain and possibly predict stock price behavior over time.