Adjustment policies in developing countries: A reassessment

This paper analyses policy responses to external shocks by developing countries in the 1974–1976 and 1979–1981 periods. It is shown that outward-oriented economies relied largely on output-increasing policies of export promotion and import substitution to offset the balance-of-payments effects of external shocks in both periods and accepted a temporary decline in the rate of economic growth in order to limit their external indebtedness. In turn, inward-oriented economies failed to apply output-increasing policies of adjustment. They financed the balance-of-payments effects of external shocks by foreign borrowing in the 1974–1976 period, and had to take deflationary measures in 1979–1981 as their increased indebtedness limited the possibilities for further borrowing. The policies applied led to substantially higher rates of economic growth in outward-oriented than in inward-oriented economies, with the differences in growth rates offsetting the differences in the size of external shocks several times.     

Appropriate policies towards multinational hotel corporations in developing countries

Despite the prevalence of international hotel chains in the tourism sector of developing countries, little research has been carried out on the structure of the industry, the sources of the competitive advantages of the hotel chains over indigenous hotels, reasons for the alternative forms of involvement of the hotel chains and deriving from this, their potential and actual impact on host countries. This article applies theories developed for the multinational enterprise in the manufacturing sector, to original data and observations on the international hotel industry. Given the state of the art and the limited information on the impact of MNE hotels, the paper is principally concerned with generating potentially useful hypotheses for consideration by host governments and to provide a framework for further research. Certain policy conclusions however, are drawn from the analysis, especially regarding the appropriate from of involvement by the international hotels.     

Drug costs in developing countries and policies to reduce them

Developed countries spend on a per capita basis about 100 times as much on health and 20 times as much on drugs as developing countries do. However, drugs constitute the ‘cutting edge’ of health service activities in the developing countries. This article analyses the estimated pharmaceutical and overall health expenditures for 1981 and gives a projection of those for the year 2000. Five policy options (1. The rational choice of drugs. 2. A public distribution system. 3. The use of bulk import orders. 4. The use of generic names. 5. The domestic production of drugs) that might reduce the current and projected levels of expenditure on drugs by developing countries, without curtailing other services, are examined. Potential savings both in domestic currency and foreign exchange that could be effected by implementing each of the five policy measures have been computed in order to indicate their critical contribution.     

Some aspects of financial policies and central banking in developing countries

Economic development can be not only facilitated but its pace can be quickened by the appropriate development of the financial system. This paper indicates the broad contours of a set of financial policies essential for the evolution of a sound and well-integrated financial system and emphasizes the role of a central bank not only as a regulator but also as a promoter of such a system. It is strange that this dual role of central banks is not sufficiently appreciated by the international institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.     

Adjustment policies and economic growth in developing countries — Is devaluation contractionary?

Zusammenfassung Anpassungspolitik und wirtschaftliches Wachstum in Entwicklungsl?ndern: Wirken Abwertungen kontraktiv? — Der Auffassung, da? abwertungsbedingte Substitutionseffekte ausreichend stark sind, um eine Ausweitung der Produktion zu gew?hrleisten, wird vielfach entgegengetreten. Eine verwirrende Vielzahl theoretischer Modelle verweist auf kontraktive Auswirkungen einer realen Abwertung. Empirische Analysen von Wechselkurseffekten auf das gesamtwirtschaftliche Wachstum fehlen jedoch weitgehend. Die vorliegende gepoolte L?nderquerschnittsuntersuchung für den Zeitraum 1982—1987 soll dazu beitragen, diese Lücke zu schlie?en. Die Ergebnisse der Regressionssch?tzungen widersprechen dem weitverbreiteten Pessimismus über die Wachstumseffekte realer Abwertungen. Die Sch?tzungen für verschiedene L?ndergruppen zeigen allerdings, da? die Richtung, das Ausma? und die zeitliche Abfolge der Wirkungen von den charakteristischen Strukturmerkmalen der untersuchten L?nder abh?ngen. Insbesondere die Exportstruktur erweist sich als wichtig.

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Résumé Les politiques d’ajustement et la croissance économique dans les pays en voie de développement: Est-ce que la dévaluation empêche la croissance? — La série déconcertante des théories qui posent qu’une dévaluation empêche la croissance doute de plus en plus de l’opinion que les effets de substitution causés par une dévaluation sont suffisamment forts pour augmenter la production macroéconomique. Avec cette étude on a l’intention de diminuer le trou frappant concernant la recherche empirique sur des effets d’une dévaluation. Les résultats de cette analyse de regression faite à travers des pays pour la période de 1982 à 1987 s’opposent au pessimisme général en ce qui concerne la répercussion d’une dévaluation réelle sur la croissance économique des pays en voie de développement. Les estimations pour des groupes de pays spécifiques indiquent que la direction, le degré et la structure temporelle des effets de croissance dépendent des caractéristiques structurelles des économies, principalement des exportations prépondérantes.

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Resumen Politicas de ajuste y crecimiento de países en desarrollo: ?puede una devaluación ser contractiva? — El impresionante número de marcos teóricos que tratan la devaluación contractiva está cuestionando seriamente la noción de que los efectos substitutivos inducidos por la devaluación son suficientemente fuertes como para garantizar un impacto netamente expansivo sobre el producto. La intención de este trabajo es llenar el vacío que existe en el studio empirico de los efectos de una devaluación. Los resultados del análisis de regresión de una muestra de varios países para el periodo 1982—1987 refutan el pesimismo generalizado sobre el impacto de una devaluación del tipo de cambio real sobre el crecimiento. Sin embargo, las estimaciones para ciertos grupos de países indican que el signo, el nivel y la estructura temporal de los impactos sobre el crecimiento dependen de las características estructurales, ante todo de las exportaciones más importantes de las economías estudiadas.

     

Financial and profit performance of MNCs in developing countries: Some evidence from an Indian and Columbian sample

This paper presents detailed information on the financing patterns and profit performance of a sample of multinational and other manufacturing firms in India and Columbia. It finds that local borrowing patterns of MNCs do not differ significantly from those of other firms, that MNC affiliates tend to pay lower interest rates abroad, that multinationality as such does not exercise a significant influence on profitability, and that local advertising and borrowing patterns have some effects on profitability.     

Financial institutions and technology policy

The less developed countries with all their handicaps of a late start have one critical advantage and that is related to the accumulated and growing scientific and technological knowledge. But to use this knowledge creatively for solving their own problems, they need to develop competence in the field of technology choice through an institutionalized technology policy. It is the purpose of this paper to suggest the major elements of such a policy and to emphasize the crucial role of the financial system.     

The dis-incentive effects of food aid and agricultural policies on local land allocation in developing countries: The case of Malawi

Food aid and other agricultural policies can create incentives/disincentives in local agricultural production. This paper provides empirical evidence on the disincentive effects of both food aid and some agricultural policies in Malawi. In contrast to previous studies, this paper analyses the impact of food aid on the proportion of land allocated to cereal crops and the interplay of both food aid and other agricultural policies in creating disincentive effects. Data were analysed using the logit transformation regression. It was found that, in addition to the disincentive effects of food aid, agricultural policies including price controls and sustained reliance on imported cereals were also undermining incentives to sustain local agricultural production. Therefore, both food aid and agricultural price policies need to be aligned to farmers' incentives to optimcally allocate land to food production.     

Trade facilitation in ASEAN countries: harmonisation of logistics policies

This paper studies the effectiveness of the implementation of trade facilitation measures in member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). We evaluate trade facilitation performance and indicate trade facilitation needs and priorities that vary between ASEAN members. In particular, we examine logistics‐related costs in ASEAN and whether the current level of logistics‐related costs could be a burden or an advantage for ASEAN countries. We also identify critical barriers that have impacts on logistics services related to foreign investment and customs across ASEAN. Finally, we propose recommendations for the harmonisation of logistics policies in ASEAN countries aimed at the development of the ASEAN Economic Community.     

Construction industry in developing countries

This paper provides a review of the construction capability available in the developing countries to meet the demand for shelter. It discusses the role of construction in the process of development and its importance to economic growth. It considers the issues facing the growth of a viable indigenous construction industry in the developing world within the context of the activities involved in the creation of constructed facilities – planning, design, construction and maintenance; it also examines the environment within which the industry has developed. For each construction activity the paper reviews available capabilities, the various resources needed for the development of an indigenous industry, and some possible means of accommodating these needs.     

Chinese contractors in developing countries

This paper uses turnover data from Chinese contracted projects in as many as 87 low and lower middle income countries from 1998 to 2009. Economic fundamentals motivate Chinese contractor presence in developing countries as their revenues are positively associated with countries’ per capita income and expected growth. All else equal, contractor project revenues are higher in countries with stronger political rights regimes. Moreover, the estimated positive effect of improvements in political freedom is largest among countries with high fuel endowment, but lowest among countries with high ores and metals endowments. Conclusions relating Chinese contractor activities, perceptions on the level corruption, and resource endowment among sub-Saharan African countries must remain tentative as the estimated relationships are sensitive to the corruption indices used.     

Fiscal disequilibrium in developing countries

Fiscal equilibrium necessitates that ‘permanent’ government expenditures be covered by ‘permanent’ government revenues. The concept of ‘permanent’ goverment expenditures and revenues takes into account future revenue from capital investments as well as temporary windfalls. Hence, equilibrium may exist despite temporary imbalance between revenue and expenditure. The causes of disequilibrium can be classified into five categories: export boom; price-inelastic tax system; public enterprise performance; increased expenditure produced by political exigencies or administrative weaknesses; and worsening terms of trade. In practice, unrealistic customs valuations, specific as opposed to ad valorem taxes and administrative difficulties have been the most common sources of declining government revenue as a percentage of gross domestic product. Increased subsidies both to consumer goods and to public enterprises as well as inadequate control mechanisms have been the most frequent causes of rising government expenditure.     

Foreign trademarks in developing countries

Foreign trademarks are used in some cases to cover imported goods and generally products made in the host countries by foreign manufacturing subsidiaries and licensees. This industrial property right is a major source of market power for those subsidiaries making consumer goods. Domestic enterprises making similar goods must either accept a reduced share of the market or must enter into trademark license agreements. But even in those cases, although licensees of foreign-owned trademarks receive a current profit out of the licence, they cannot enjoy the result of the goodwill development.Although the advertising expenditures are borne by the consumers of the developing countries, the accrual in goodwill is for the benefit of non-resident owners of this intangible asset. These private benefits — mostly appropriated by the foreign trademark owner — can be considered as net social costs to the recipient country.     

Structural adjustment policies in developing economies

This paper examines structural adjustment policies in developing countries, undertaken with the purpose of regaining the growth path following internal and external shocks. The proposed policy package further aims at improving overall economic policies. Its components include production incentives, incentives to save and to invest, the choice of public investments as well as sectoral, budgetary and monetary policies. The interdependence of the proposed policy measure is also indicated and comments are offered on the international policy environment in which they operate.