美国农地保护制度及其启示

美国佛罗里达州希尔斯伯勒县实施了"农业产业发展项目",以保护地役权为核心,激发农地所着者保护农地的积极性,实现地区农地面积不变。目前我国耕地在数量与质量上都面临着总体水平持续下降的问题,因此有必要探讨美国的保护地役权制度的特点与优势,以期对完善我国耕地保护制度提供有益借鉴。     

宅基地资格权立法表达与实现形式研究综述

研究目的：系统梳理宅基地资格权立法表达与实现形式的相关研究，明确当前宅基地资格权研究的热点、观点及进展，为未来深化宅基地资格权的研究提供参考。研究方法：CiteSpace的文献计量法与文献归纳法。研究结果：（1）当前学界对于宅基地资格权的关注度持续上升，研究内容日渐深化与多元化；（2）当前对宅基地资格权立法表达的研究，主要集中在宅基地资格权的立法困境、法律属性及入法路径三方面；（3）当前对宅基地资格权实现形式的研究，可总结为宅基地资格权实现困境、实现模式、实现路径三方面。研究结论：目前宅基地资格权研究内容主要服务于农民权益保障和乡村振兴战略，研究方法呈现多学科交叉融合态势，研究成果为深化宅基地制度改革提供了重要的理论支撑和科学依据。未来研究需重点关注宅基地资格权入法困境，明确宅基地资格权法律性质，探究宅基地资格权权能及居住保障权益实现的多样化形式，探索建立宅基地资格权退出机制。     

保护地役权之民法调整的解释路径

核心提示 本文从保护地役权的特殊性入手,对保护地役权的客体集体 土地的双重功能进行分析,提出了保护地役权符合民法调整的本土化法权结构合理解释的路径. 保护地役权是为了保护供役地所能影响范围内环境公共利益的目的,通过自然资源主管部门与土地使用权人签订地役权合同而设立的一项权利.在公益林地、国家公园建设以及退耕还林等生态...     

公共役权视角下耕地管制的法权基础与制度完善

研究目的：探究耕地保护中公权力对土地权利进行限制的法权基础与耕地保护立法中完善公权管制的路径。研究方法：演绎推理。研究结果：公共役权构成耕地管制的权力依据，亦为土地权利人因受此种限制而获得相应补偿提供支撑。耕地上负担由土地物权和公共役权组成的公私二元权利（力）结构。当前土地用途管制制度存在管制目的的片面性、管制方式的单一性和管制链条的残缺性等问题，急需在耕地保护相关立法中予以完善。研究结论：耕地保护立法应遵循公共役权的法权逻辑，平衡公权与私权的关系，将管制对象由耕地用途扩及质量，明确管制的边界，由单一管制转向激励性管制，建立公平合理的耕地保护补偿原则和灵活多元的补偿方式，完善管制链条。     

开化:创新“保护地役权”登记工作

国家公园体制试点区将各级各类自然保护地整合划入国家公园试点区范围,对山水林田湖草等自然生态系统实行统一管理、整体保护和系统修复。本文介绍了浙江省开化县开展林地地役权改革试点,创新"保护地役权"登记工作的实践做法,使林地地役权改革在法律框架内形成了完整闭环,盘活了绿水青山,实现了多方共赢。     

宅基地“三权分置”的有效实现：理论探讨与实践探索 ——基于“宅基地‘三权分置’的有效实现研讨会”的综述

研究目的：系统梳理宅基地“三权分置”实现的理论探讨及实践探索，并对宅基地“三权分置”的有效实现进行展望，以期为深化农村宅基地制度改革提供参考。研究方法：综合分析与系统推理。研究结果：（1）宅基地“三权分置”的所有权、资格权、使用权是相互制约、相互关联的有机整体，其中所有权是“母权”；（2）宅基地“三权分置”的有效实现面临着所有权行使主体的法律定位不明、资格权界定长期处于模糊状态和使用权适度放活的“度”难以把握等困境；（3）试点地区分别从宅基地所有权的行使、宅基地资格权的认定与保障、宅基地使用权的适度放活三方面展开进行了实践探索，并取得了一定的实际成效。研究结论：应面向中国式的农业农村现代化建设目标，立足于中国国情开展宅基地“三权分置”有效实现的理论探讨与实践探索：一是“三权分置”的实现应坚持稳慎推进的主基调；二是加强集体经济组织建设是落实“三权分置”的关键；三是“三权分置”的实现必须因地制宜。     

集体林生态保护适用地役权制度探索

在集体林地生态保护中构建环境保护地役权制度,对森林资源本身及其生态效益的地位予以明晰,使国家实际控制意义上占有林地,有助于实现森林资源集中管护之目标。本文以浙江省地方实践出发,探讨以往集体林地改革中全然倚赖私法限制手段或纯粹采取公法手段的弊端,引出集体林地生态保护中被忽略的公私法结合向度的特有优势,阐述环境保护地役权制度有效克服传统财产限制工具中个人理性与集体理性相抵牾等弊端的特属适配性,为南方集体林区的公益林和森林公园保护性立法提供浙江视角和经验。     

福利多元主义视角下宅基地资格权的性质与实现路径——以北京市魏善庄镇试点为例

研究目的:明确农村宅基地资格权的权利属性与内涵,从理论和实践的角度探索资格权实现的路径框架,为深化农村宅基地制度改革提供理论支撑。研究方法:文义解释、历史分析、文献研究和案例分析。研究结果:针对当前宅基地资格权的权利内涵不清、实现路径不明、实践经验不足等问题,本文从保障性内涵和现行制度体系适应性出发,认为资格权应当具备成员权内涵,具有身份性、无偿性、长期性、均等性等特征,并基于此从福利多元主义视角构建了宅基地资格权的实现路径理论框架,提出在宅基地资格权的实现过程中,应设立政府、集体、市场和家庭的四元供给主体,并通过城乡统筹保障农民宅基地资格权的多元动态实现,同时运用此理论框架对北京市大兴区魏善庄镇羊坊三村宅基地改革实践经验进行了案例研究和分析。研究结论:资格权应当在兼顾主体意愿和历史根源基础上以成员资格为依据进行主体认定,以资格公平性和均等性为原则,以"实物+货币"双重动态机制和城乡统筹机制构建实现路径,推动"户有所居",并通过宅基地资格权的多元动态实现推动农村住房保障体系的完善。     

基于Cite Space的生态产品价值实现研究的演化路径与趋势

生态产品价值实现是推进生态文明建设和落实“绿水青山就是金山银山”理论的实践载体，学界围绕生态产品价值实现作了大量研究。为明晰目前生态产品价值实现的研究进展、演化路径及发展趋势，基于文献计量工具Cite Space对CNKI数据库中567篇国内生态产品价值实现研究论文的关键词时区图、聚类图、突现词视图进行可视化分析。研究结果表明：生态产品价值实现机制的研究主要经历了价值实现理念提出、试点探索、全面推进等三大阶段，具体研究内容涵盖了生态产品价值实现的内涵研究、理论与实践研究等，不同时期生态产品价值实现的研究重点也不同。基于图谱的可视化分析，指出未来生态产品价值实现应以经济、社会和生态效益有机融合为目标，健全价值实现的制度体系，强化多主体协同供给，深入挖掘乡村生态产品，全面有效推进生态文明建设。     

宅基地“三权分置”促进共同富裕：基于浙江省 象山县的案例分析

研究目的：基于浙江省象山县的案例分析,探索宅基地“三权分置”改革促进共同富裕的路径。研究方法：案例研究法,交易成本分析法。研究结果：（1）通过象山县纵向案例分析,提出了“确权—赋能—活化—保障”宅基地“三权分置”促进共同富裕的演化模型;（2）运用交易成本理论,聚焦宅基地社会保障属性与财产功能属性的动态平衡,揭示了宅基地“三权分置”改革促进共同富裕的路径。研究结论：宅基地“三权分置”促进共同富裕的实现,可从巩固共同富裕制度运行基础、放活共同富裕制度内生动力、拓宽共同富裕财产增收渠道、构建共同富裕红利分配体系4条路径整体推进。     

Land use determines interest in conservation easements among private landowners

Protection of private lands through conservation easements has garnered recent attention from scientists and conservation practitioners. Questions remain, however, about the specific characteristics and activities driving landowners’ interest in conservation easements and their willingness to consider granting them. Resolving these questions could improve prospects for private land conservation by helping land conservation organizations identify and better understand potential easement grantors. We conducted a survey of 513 private landowners in a peri-urban fringe area in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York, USA. Logistic regression analysis returned seven significant predictors of landowner willingness to consider granting conservation easements. Participation in environmental organizations, recreational land-use activities, wild food gathering, and land entitlement were the strongest factors promoting interest in conservation easements. Long-term residency, male gender, and hunting or fishing, on the other hand, significantly decreased the likelihood of considering conservation easements. The findings suggest that landowners most interested in to granting conservation easements are active land users. Notably, among all the land-use activities reported, the most frequent and the most important in predicting interest in conservation easements are those undertaken for recreational and subsistence, rather than economic, purposes. This suggests that while easements might be appropriate for working lands, their role in reconciling land use with conservation requires a flexible definition of work.     

Trends in private land conservation: Increasing complexity,shifting conservation purposes and allowable private land uses

The terrain of private-land conservation dealmaking is shifting. As the area of private land protected for conservation increases, it is time to understand trends in private-land conservation agreements. We examined 269 conservation easements and conducted 73 interviews with land conservation organizations to investigate changes in private-land conservation in the United States. We hypothesized that since 2000, conservation easements have become more complex but less restrictive. Our analysis reveals shifts in what it means for private land to be “conserved.” We found that conservation easements have indeed become more complex, with more purposes and terms after 2000 compared to conservation easements recorded before 2000. However, changes in restrictiveness of conservation easements varied by land use. Mining and waste dumping were less likely to be allowed after 2000, but new residences and structures were twice as likely to be allowed. We found a shift toward allowing some bounded timber harvest and grazing and a decline in terms that entirely allow or prohibit these working land uses. Interviews revealed staff perceptions of reasons for these changes. Our analysis suggests that “used” landscapes are increasingly important for conservation but that conserving these properties stretches the limits of simple, perpetual policy tools and requires increasingly complex and contingent agreements.     

Encumbering harvest rights to protect marine environments: a model of marine conservation easements*

We adapt the concept of a conservation easement to a marine environment and explore its use to achieve conservation goals. Although marine environments generally are not owned, those who use them for commercial fishing often are regulated. These regulations grant harvesters rights to use marine environments in specified ways, and the possibility of encumbering these rights to achieve conservation goals creates a potential role for marine easements. We examine this potential under alternative fishery management regimes and find, generally, that marine easements tend to be most effective when harvest rights are delineated most fully. Our analysis suggests ways that marine easements can have flexibility and transactions cost advantages over other approaches to achieve marine conservation goals. We also propose ways in which the design of laws allowing marine easements should follow, or depart from, the design of laws authorising conservation easements on land.     

Marginal Property Tax Effects of Conservation Easements: A Vermont Case Study

Conservation easements allow landowners to transfer their land's development rights to another entity, usually a nontaxable conservation organization. Conservation reduces the town's tax base, necessitating a tax rate increase to maintain service levels. However, conserving land also decreases the supply of developable land and provides open space amenities that may be capitalized into the value of nearby properties. These effects may offset the decrease in the tax base caused by the easement. Using a sample of twenty-nine Vermont towns, we show that private conservation easements increase property tax rates in the short run, but are tax-neutral or tax-suppressing in the long run.     

Reconciliation ecology in practice: Legal and policy considerations when implementing temporary nature on undeveloped lands in the European Union

Strict regulations, such as the EU Nature Directives, remain pivotal for halting the downward spiral for some protected species. In recent years, though, it has become clear that nature protection rules, are also generating perverse incentives, especially when rigidly applied to areas that have already been transformed by human use, such as agricultural land, quarries and port sites. With the arrival of novel incentive concepts, such as temporary nature in several EU Member States, an unprecedented window of opportunity exists to reframe current nature protection rules. Temporary nature fosters private landowners, ranchers and project developers to actively participate in the recovery of endangered species, also in urban and industrial environments. In return for allowing nature to develop on their undeveloped and vacant lands, the project developers are provided with the legal guarantee that they can still subsequently develop their lands at a later stage. These newly founded conservation policies, which are increasingly endorsed by stand out as striking illustrations of the recently emerged branch of reconciliation ecology, since they aim at increasing biodiversity by opting for win-win scenarios in human-dominated landscapes. It is concluded that a more reconciliatory approach towards nature conservation, which goes beyond the ambit of protected areas, can serve as a catalyst for biodiversity recovery across the wider landscape. Further research will need to underpin whether the ambitious presumptions with regard to these well-intentioned and innovative approaches to nature conservation are justified.     

Playing musical chairs with land use obligations: Market-based instruments and environmental public policies in Brazil

In Brazil, market-based instruments focusing on land use dimensions are increasingly promoted as a means to make public environmental policies effective. Landowners and farmers call for more flexible regulations and economic incentives to adopt ecologically sound practices, while public agencies and conservation NGOs seek new ways of financing and legitimising legal standards. Market-based instruments are considered by these actors as having the potential to both achieve their own goals and conciliate all interests. As a result, legal frameworks (including cap-and-trade systems, biodiversity offsetting and payments for ecosystem services) are being designed which allow to exchange land use rights and obligations. Under a sociolegal approach, this article provides an overview of such instruments. It shows to what extent they may entail a reconfiguration of the burden sharing and the priority setting of nature conservation. Depending on how actors use legal standards, their responsibilities may be eased and the level of conservation may be lowered, both facts that raise significant controversy.     

Anticipating a new conservation bureaucracy? Land and power in Indonesia’s Essential Ecosystem Area policy

As an emerging policy in Indonesia, “Essential Ecosystem Areas” (EEA) is being established as an instrument to expand protections for conservation areas at sites beyond the classical domain of the conservation bureaucracy. The policy impetus is from recent global research identifying high conservation values located outside of formally designated conservation areas. EEA policy provides a foundation for justifying conservation practices at sites based on high biodiversity indicators, but which might not have previously held formal protections. This policy instrument is particularly unique in Indonesia because it is envisioned to support initiatives that emerge voluntarily, even in areas that might not have been historically thought of as conservation areas. This is unusual because it applies to all land categories, including private and public lands. In this article, we introduce the EEA policy and identify the potential applications it might have, considering the possibilities for future conservation area management in Indonesia. In particular, we identify some key principles for researchers and practitioners to follow when assessing EEA implementation. Our organizing framework consists of several elements based on existing land and power characteristics, which we connect to the institutions that might emerge amidst these new policy arrangements. We apply the land and power framework to two emerging EEA sites in Sulawesi to anticipate the extent to which the policy suggests a future trajectory for conservation management, or whether conservation policy will remain tied to existing rigid bureaucratic structures. Findings from the two cases point to the continued primacy of the centralized conservation bureaucracy, indicating that EEA sites are being negotiated through the classical approach for administering conservation areas.     

Slippage Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program

Each year, billions of dollars of public funds are expended to purchase conservation easements on farmland. One unintended impact of these programs is that they may bring non-cropland into crop production. Such a slippage effect can be caused by increased output prices and by substitution effects. This article shows that for each one hundred acres of cropland retired under the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) in the central United States, twenty acres of non-cropland were converted to cropland, offsetting 9 and 14% of CRP water and wind erosion reduction benefits, respectively. Implications of these results for the design of conservation programs are discussed.     

Strategic targeting of agricultural conservation easements as a growth management tool

Public and private programs have preserved an estimated 730,000 ha of agricultural land in the United States by acquiring agricultural conservation easements (ACEs) that retire a property's development rights. ACEs could be a potent tool for smart growth if strategically targeted. This paper attempts to quantify measures of strategic targeting of ACEs as guidance for planners. Evaluating the placement of 157 ACEs in the San Francisco Bay Area of California produced mixed results. Preservation and development of agricultural land were both consistent with general plans. In contrast, we found little evidence of ACEs being used on a regional scale either to reinforce urban growth boundaries or to coalesce with other open space to form large contiguous blocks of protected areas. We used the TOPSIS method (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) to identify the most strategic agricultural lands, which are quite different from where easements have been established through 2002. We encourage planners to consider strategic targeting of ACEs as a politically acceptable mechanism to complement traditional planning tools to minimize low density sprawl.     

2014年土地科学研究进展评述及2015年展望——农用地保护分报告

研究目的:归纳分析2014年国内外农用地保护方面的研究进展,展望未来研究趋势。研究方法:文献统计法。研究结果:2014年国内农用地保护研究主要侧重于耕地保护、耕地资源变化、农用地多功能价值及生态保护等方面,国外侧重于荒地恢复、生物多样性保护等方面。研究结论:国内外农用地保护研究存在一定的差异,未来国内学者还将在推动农村城镇化及农业现代化发展的主要科技需求下,更加关注耕地数量质量及空间变化等方面的研究,农用地产能提升与现代农业发展、生态环境保护等仍将是研究重点。