EDITORIAL

Abstract

This study examines the use of environmental forecasting during the strategic planning process in private city clubs. Key internal and external environmental factors were identified that impact city clubs and the club industry. Strategic planning practices and influencing factors were studied in four city clubs, in North Carolina and South Carolina, utilizing the qualitative research method of structured personal interviews, and the survey method of quantitative research. Numerous factors influenced the strategic planning process of three clubs, including consultants, employees, board members, trade associations and trade reports. One club, which did not conduct strategic planning, is struggling to survive. Environmental issues influencing these clubs were: technological, social, and economic. Each club's business was significantly affected by the business climate of the city in which it resides.     

Clubs and Hallmark Events

ABSTRACT

In Australia, clubs have long been viewed by some sections of the hospitality industry as the “poor cousins” of the more glamorous end of the market, such as four- and five-star hotels and resorts. Despite this perception, clubs are continuing to experience growth both in terms of membership and revenues collected and many play significant roles within the communities in which they operate. With regard to special events, much of the economic and social impact work published to date has focused upon the impact of such events in terms of accommodation and restaurant use, as well as visitor numbers and economic multipliers. The club industry in Australia, and in New South Wales (NSW) in particular, is a vibrant and thriving industry, but little work has been carried out to quantify the impact upon clubs of “outside” or external special events. Using in-depth interviews and discussions with marketing staff within two clubs in NSW (one rural and one metropolitan), this article examines their relationships to hallmark events that were conducted within each club's region. Analysis is made of the clubs' involvement with these events and the extent to which they were aggressively proactive in acquiring linkages to the event in question.     

A History of Machine Gambling in the NSW Club Industry

ABSTRACT

This article documents a history of the NSW club industry, with particular emphasis on its evolution to a major contemporary operator of gaming machines at state, national and international levels. It argues that three conditions of club registration-their not-for-profit status, membership requirements, and social benefit objectives-have been instrumental for clubs in gaining and maintaining dominant rights to machine gambling in NSW. These three features of clubs traditionally have underpinned their legitimacy as major providers of machine gambling, reflecting prevailing government policy that linked legalised gambling to social benefit. However, the substantial revenues that accrued from machine gambling, amidst an absence of competition, fuelled an expansion of the club sector that was neither predicted nor planned, with many clubs growing dramatically in assets, membership and facilities. The original club goals of promoting and pursuing the social purpose and community benefit for which they were established became superseded by an emphasis on expansion, market share, and profits. More recently, increased competition for the gambling dollar, reflecting a shift in government policy towards economically driven stimulation and expansion of commercial gambling, has further entrenched the commercialisation of clubs in their machine gambling operations, subordinating their social agenda to economic interests. This change in focus by club management has diminished the social contract that exists for clubs to operate gambling for community benefit, the very basis of the clubs' legitimacy as major providers of machine gambling. Indeed, the implicit assumption that social benefit was built into club machine gambling has allowed the clubs to exploit their position of market dominance in a way that exacerbates the negative social impacts of their core product.     

Select Performance Differences in Equity and Non-Equity Membership Structures Within Private Clubs

ABSTRACT

Managers at private clubs in the Greater Toronto Metropolitan area who are members of the Ontario Branch of the Canadian Society of Club Managers (CSCM) were surveyed to determine the membership structures at their clubs (equity or non-equity), along with the reasons, and advantages/disadvantages for those structures. Responses were received from 46 managers, 57% of the population. The managers were affiliated with golf-country clubs, yacht clubs, city-athletic clubs, and city clubs. Respondents of the survey most often represented: golf-country clubs (78%), member-owned clubs (84%), and clubs with non-equity membership structures (83%). Clubs with non-equity membership structures were more likely to have full memberships and waiting lists of candidates to join the clubs. Non-equity clubs also had lower entrance fees to join, but retained a higher proportion of the overall entrance fee paid by members when they joined compared to equity clubs.     

‘The Trouble with Today's Young Ones…’

ABSTRACT

This article examines the challenges for Australian clubs in attracting and keeping the younger demographic. Using a case study approach written by a participant observer, and Waterman, Peters, and Phillips' Seven-S Framework, the issues and difficulties faced by one NSW coastal club are examined as they trialled two “youth market” specific products aimed at the under-18 segment. After less than 12 months, both products were cancelled and a decision was made by the board of directors to no longer target the “difficult” youth market. In examining the challenges faced by this club, it was found that the “troublesome youth” became a convenient scapegoat for the real contributors to the under-18's product failures. This article found that, while the initial strategy to target the youth market was sound, there was a lack of support from the other internal factors of structure, systems, skills, style, staff, and superordinate goals that contributed to the cancellation and thus failure of these youth-oriented products. It is useful to examine these failures from a strategic viewpoint as a means for other clubs to become more familiar with the pitfalls of targeting the youth market from the outset, instead of through the lens of hindsight.     

Declining Memberships During an Economic Downturn in U.S. Private Clubs

ABSTRACT

Surveys were sent to managers at one thousand private clubs, who were members of the Club Managers Association of America (CMAA) to determine what membership changes clubs have experienced during the economic downturn from 2000 to 2003. The majority of respondents managed country clubs, member-owned clubs, and represented different areas of the United States. An overall response rate of 50% was achieved. Most clubs experienced a decline in the overall number of members and a higher annual attrition rate. Fewer clubs reported having a waitlist of members wanting to join and the clubs having a waitlist reported a smaller number of individuals on the waitlist. The clubs without a waitlist reported a higher number of openings in their club. The results of this study suggest that clubs need to implement membership marketing strategies in order to increase the number of candidates for membership during economic downturns.     

Meeting Planners' Use of the Internet to Plan Group Meetings

Abstract

Despite the fact that hospitality web sites are proliferating and opportunities to complete sales transactions via the Internet increase daily, no research exists on meeting planners' use of the Internet to plan group meetings. Guided by Hoffman and Novak's (1994) Model of Planned Behavior this study focused on determining what variables are related to a meeting planners' intent to use and current use of the Internet to plan group meetings. Three hundred sixty-two planners of the Chicago Chapter of Meeting Professionals International were surveyed via a faxed instrument. Planners' attitudes, beliefs about norms, and perceived behavioral control were found to be significantly related to their usage of the Internet. Additionally, results confirmed that meeting planners view the Internet as having positive qualities and benefits in planning group meetings and that it is a cost effective planning tool.     

Managing Knowledge in Tourism Planning

SUMMARY

This paper explores the theme of strategic planning in a State Tourism Organization (STO) from a knowledge management perspective. It highlights the value of knowledge in strategy making and the importance of an organisation's knowledge management agenda in facilitating a strategic planning process. In particular, it considers the capability of an STO to implement knowledge management as the key to a successful strategic planning exercise. In order to develop greater insight into the factors that impact on planning competence, the key aim of this paper is to develop a framework on which the capability of a STO to implement a knowledge-based agenda in strategic planning can be assessed. Research on knowledge management in the field of tourism is limited and there is little practical account of the application of knowledge management principles in tourism planning. Further, there is no apparent tool or instrument that allows for the assessment of an STO's capability to implement knowledge management in planning initiatives. Based on a literature review, a three-point framework of assessment is developed. The three elements of the framework are identified as:

1. Integration of knowledge management objectives with strategic imperatives;

2. A planning approach that balances top-down (outcome focused) with bottom-up (process focused) planning processes; and

3. Organisational capacity, including leadership, people and culture, process, technology, content and continuous improvement.

The framework is tested through application to a practical case study-a planning initiative undertaken by a leading tourism STO in Australia. The results demonstrate that the framework is a useful means to evaluate organisational capability in knowledge-led strategic planning exercises and would be of practical value as a point of reference for future knowledge- based strategic planning projects.     

A Thematic Review of Australia's Club Management Magazine

ABSTRACT

This analysis of articles from 1993 to 2003 in Australia's premier club management trade magazine, Club Management in Australia (CMA), the publication of the Club Managers' Association Australia (CMAA), highlights a number of recurring key themes. These are: taxation legislation; employment relations and human resources; gambling, alcohol, smoking, and related social issues; club expansion, innovation and growth; and contribution to the community. This article analyses these themes and discusses the key forces driving change in these areas, while also identifying the viewpoints of club managers. It is concluded that empirical academic research into these themes and the issues pertaining to them is needed. This is especially true of gambling, smoking, and social issues, the effectiveness of new gambling and club-related legislation, and the contribution of clubs to the community. Further research will be required to test the validity of several of the arguments put forward by the CMAA in the articles reviewed.     

The Non-Equity Entry Mode Choices of International Hotel Organizations in New Zealand

ABSTRACT

Research on the non-equity entry mode choices of service firms is relatively limited. We use transaction cost economics and organizational capability perspectives to examine the determinants of choosing between franchising and management contracts in the hotel industry. In our analysis of four international hotel organizations operating in New Zealand, we found that both asset specificity and imperfect imitability helped in explaining the choice between franchising and management contracts. Behavioral uncertainty and host country management capabilities explained the entry mode choice of some hotel organizations but were not applicable for others that entered New Zealand via international strategic alliances or used strata titles. Finally, environmental uncertainty and the development of New Zealand’s business environment had a limited effect on choosing between franchising and management contracts.     

Profiling the Strategic Marketing Activities of Small Tourism Businesses

Abstract

This study profiles the strategic marketing activities of small tourism businesses, by examining the extent to which they engage in specified practices which may be broadly described as “strategic.” It was found that city-based enterprises are more strategic in their emphasis than their rural counterparts, and that larger small businesses are more strategic than smaller small businesses. Businesses which engage in product packaging appear to be more strategic than those which do not. Possible explanations for the relatively low incidence of strategic marketing amongst small tourism business generally are a lack of managerial expertise and the absence of staff to whom tasks may be delegated.     

The environment‐community symbiosis: A case for collaborative tourism planning

This article advances the proposition that sustainable tourism can be achieved through recognition that the public and private sector, the host communities and the natural environment are interdependent stakeholders in a complex tourism ‘domain’, where no single individual, agency or group can resolve strategic tourism issues by acting alone. The planning and management of this domain for the purpose of achieving sustainability requires moving away from traditional approaches towards dynamic collaboration among the stakeholders of the tourism development and planning domain. Collaboration provides a flexible process which evolves over time, enabling stakeholders to disseminate and manage problems or issues on an interactive basis. It offers an attractive alternative to adversarial problem solving methods in tourism planning and management, when inter or multi‐sectoral participation is required. The paper commences with a discussion of the shortfalls of traditional tourism planning processes and models, followed by an overview of collaboration ‘theory’. Examples are given which illustrate collaborative approaches in several mountain resort areas. An exploratory case study of tourism development and planning issues in the mountain community of Canmore, Alberta (Canada) is then presented, leading to a discussion and conclusion regarding the theoretical and practical applications of collaboration toward achieving sustainable tourism.     

Investigating the interplay among the Olympic Games image,destination image,and country image for four previous hosts

ABSTRACT

This research tested the triangular relationships among country image, destination image, and Olympic Games image using a quasi-experimental design on an online platform. One month before the 2016 Olympics in Brazil, four groups of respondents were randomly assigned to a country context to rate their perceptions of one of the following host countries: England, United Kingdom (UK), Greece, Brazil, or Russia. Brazil's image was measured again one month after the Olympic Games. Comparison of groups showed that England had the strongest country image while Brazil and Greece had stronger destination images, and Russia had the lowest score in both domains. The Olympics image was stronger than both Russia’s country and destination images. Theoretical, managerial, and methodological implications are discussed.     

The Ethical Judgment of Private Club Senior Executives

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to investigate effects of working experience and organization size on ethical judgments on ethical issues among senior private club executives. Senior club executives at small and large private clubs were given five vignettes, representing ethical dilemmas in five categories of ethical behavior identified by previous researchers. They were asked to determine whether each issue was a question of ethics or not (N = 413). The multivariate analysis of variance results indicate that senior executives working in the large-sized club with more than 20 years’ hospitality working experience tend to make higher ethical judgments on ethical issues.     

Recent Tourism and Hospitality Research in China

ABSTRACT

Although China's tourism has become a vital part in the world tourism market, little is known internationally about tourism and hospitality research in China. This study reviewed 500 articles published from 2000 to 2005 in China's leading tourism research journal, Tourism Tribune, and provided an overview of China's recent tourism and hospitality research. Content analysis results showed that tourism research themes in China primarily focused on tourism attraction/resources development and management, tourism planning, and tourism industry development issues. Most research under review used a qualitative approach, while 15% of the articles employed some quantitative methods. Articles using advanced statistical techniques were scarce.     

Development of a Scale to Measure Social Capital in Recreation and Sport Clubs

ABSTRACT

Social capital's measurement has been limited and an effective scale is needed. This research employed focus groups and interviews and a panel of experts to provide understanding and items for a social capital scale in sport and recreation setting. After a pilot study the Club Social Capital Scale (CSCS) was completed by 1,079 members of sport and recreation clubs. This 42-item scale included the factors trust, friendship, acceptance, reciprocity, norms, and governance. Exploratory factor analysis resulted in a 20-item four component (governance, norms, friendship-acceptance, and trust-reciprocity) CSCS. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the potential four or five factor model and the hierarchical structure. The CSCS is the first psychometrically developed instrument to measure the factors underlying social capital rather than its outcomes. It can inform policy makers or sport and recreation administrators to establish baseline social capital in their organization and the efficacy of interventions or changes in policy.     

Conceptualising a contemporary marketing mix for sustainable tourism

This paper outlines how marketing, though traditionally considered an enemy of sustainability, can play a role in implementing sustainable tourism. It notes the redefinition in 2007 by the American Marketing Association of marketing's aims to consider wider societal issues beyond those of clients and customers. It illustrates how the recognition of the importance of sustainable tourism at all scales of tourism activity provides marketing with an opportunity to pursue sustainability outcomes. We review the strategic tourism marketing planning process and conceptually develop a sustainability tourism marketing model that embeds sustainability considerations at each stage of the planning process. Our proposed model contributes to sustainable tourism theory development and offers a conceptual tool for managing a tourism organisation's ecological and societal footprint on the supply side and a critical opportunity for transforming consumer decision-making on the demand side, irrespective of tourism scale. A 30-cell matrix is proposed that cross-references a strong set of 10 marketing elements (product, price, promotion, place, participants, process, physical evidence, partnership, packaging and programming) against the questions posed by the triple bottom line of economic factors, the environmental and sociocultural concern, creating a check list of indicators for management purposes.     

Strategic Management of External Change in NSW Registered Clubs

ABSTRACT

This research examines how clubs strategically manage change resulting from alterations in their external environment. Specifically, this paper aims to investigate the marketing implications of recent legislative change arising from restrictions imposed on advertising and promotion of club gaming in one Australian state, the most populous state of New South Wales (NSW). Managers of three northern NSW clubs situated adjacent to the southern Queensland (QLD) border were interviewed to obtain primary data for this investigation. Results show that legislation restricting gaming advertising, promotion and external signage has caused difficulties in marketing these three clubs whose core product is gaming machines. Short-term results of revised marketing strategies indicate that club member numbers are steady but spending is unpredictable. Visitors are harder to attract, particularly new visitors.     

Tourist Attitudes Towards the Environment

Abstract

This article evaluates the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) as a tool for measuring the economic benefits of the provision of non-marketed tourism products. CVM was used to measure skiers' willingness to pay (WTP) for an environmentally friendly ski destination. Skiers from three different nationalities were surveyed, and although they were more likely to visit a resort that is environmentally responsible, not all of them would pay more for the privilege. Use of the CVM indicated a strong correlation between WTP and the cost of the holiday, level of income, and level of environmental conscience. The authors conclude that although CVM can provide useful data for tourism decision-makers, it does have its limitations.     

The Marketing Planning Index: A Tool for Measuring Strategic Marketing Effectiveness

Abstract

Managers practice in a consistently changing environment necessitating the need for an effective strategic marketing process. Nevertheless, measurement of marketing effectiveness has tended to be ignored in the literature. This study proposes a new managerial tool called the marketing planning index, which measures the effectiveness of marketing. The tool is tested on the service industry-in this case the hotel sector. Our findings indicate that the marketing planning index is a simple but powerful managerial tool that helps develop the diagnostic information needed to generate corporate and business level initiatives designed to improve strategic marketing effectiveness.