Service encounters and face loss: Issues of failures,fairness, and context

This study examines the influence of various aspects of a hospitality service failure event, including social context, interpersonal treatment, and favorability of outcome on consumer evaluations of face (feeling of respect). A 2 (social exposure: public/private) × 2 (interpersonal treatment: positive/negative) × 2 (outcome fairness: favorable/unfavorable) between-subjects experimental design was employed in the study, which collected data from 576 Chinese respondents in Beijing and Shanghai. Evidence suggests interpersonal treatment style and the favorability of outcome fairness directly influence Chinese consumers’ self-reported loss of face. However, interaction effects affected the influence of the independent variables. Consumers’ face evaluations were significantly lower if outcome fairness was unfavorable (versus favorable) and received in private (rather than in public) and if the interpersonal treatment style was poor. Regression analysis demonstrated that outcome favorability had a strong association with negative word of mouth in a public situation, and face had a strong association with levels of satisfaction in both public and private situations. Management implications for hospitality operators include the need to reconsider standard practices relating to service failure negotiation and to adopt public resolution arrangements.     

The effects of acculturation,social distinctiveness,and social presence in a service failure situation

Going beyond the traditional East/West consumer differentiation in studying service failure, this article examined the effect of acculturation, both independently and together with social distinctiveness and social presence, on the perceptions and behavioral responses of Chinese–Australian consumers. The research employed a 3 × 2 × 2 between-subject experimental design in which data were collected from 224 Chinese–Australians. Results showed that the different acculturation levels of these consumers did not affect their perceptions and behavior in a service failure situation. Instead, where and with whom a service failure was experienced had pronounced effects on consumer behavior depending on the extent to which the consumers acculturated to the culture of their host country. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are also discussed.     

A meta-analysis of behavioral intentions for environment-friendly initiatives in hospitality research

Research on environment-friendly initiatives has received increasing attention in hospitality research. However, an integrated literature review of research examining the impact of consumer perceptions of green initiatives on their behavioral intentions is lacking. To that end, a quantitative meta-analysis of 26 articles published in hospitality journals was conducted in order to determine the effect sizes of the relationship between consumers’ perceptions and their green behaviors. This research intended to examine how two broad categories – internalized perceptions (i.e. personal values, attitudes, environmental knowledge/awareness, and perceived benefits) and perceptions of the firm (i.e. hotel/restaurant image, perceived quality, and satisfaction) – influence consumers’ behavioral intentions toward green hotels/restaurants (e.g., word-of-mouth intentions, retentions, willingness to pay, and willingness to pay a premium). This meta-analysis shows that both internalized perceptions and perceptions of the firm had a strong positive association with behavioral intentions. The average effect sizes for internalized perceptions and perceptions of the firms were r = 0.3177 and r = 0.4240, respectively. The findings of this research suggest that the positive relationship between consumer perceptions and behavioral intentions is well-established. Therefore, it might not be fruitful to continue to apply identical frameworks (e.g., the theory of planned behavior or the theory of reasoned action) in future research. We thus suggest that hospitality and tourism researchers in the area of environment-friendly initiatives need to either significantly improve the existing models or look for new and more diverse frameworks in order to make meaningful theoretical contributions.     

A means-end chain of fuzzy conceptualization to elicit consumer perception in store image

This paper discusses how the uses of a means-end approach with fuzzy conceptualization in eliciting consumer requirements provides a better understanding of the consumers’ perceptual orientation toward store image. We provide a hierarchy value map that fuses attribute–consequence–value (A–C–V) chains and fuzzy linguistics to effectively and efficiently understand store image processes and consumer satisfaction. A fuzzy set is also adopted to address the ill-defined nature of the consumer linguistic judgments required in the proposed means-end chain. The findings of this research imply that, overall, consumers are most concerned with the dominant perceptual orientation of store image, that is, eye-catching poster → visual satisfaction → satisfaction and display with theme → recommendation to others (willingness to talk to salesperson) → satisfaction (happiness).     

The influence of hospitality leaders’ relational transparency on followers’ trust and deviance behaviors: Mediating role of behavioral integrity

This paper investigates the effect of leader’s relational transparency on follower organizational deviance through followers’ perception of leader’s behavioral integrity and their trust in leader. Multi-level modeling results from a multisource survey-based field-study with 24 hospitality student project teams (N = 149) show that behavioral integrity mediates the relationship between leader’s relational transparency and follower’s trust in leader. Furthermore, multi-level path analysis suggests that leader’s relational transparency, a team-level construct, exerts a cross-level effect on follower’s organizational deviance through the mediating roles of behavioral integrity and follower’s trust in leader. The study has yielded theoretical and practical implications that are useful for hospitality leaders.     

Does a server's attentiveness matter? Understanding intercultural service encounters in restaurants

Interaction between customers and servers from different cultures provides an interesting case of intercultural communication. Although a server's attentive service on customers is common in full service dining restaurants, especially in the United States, this may not be preferable to customers from different cultures. Two studies examined cultural differences between Americans and Japanese customers on their preferences regarding U.S. restaurant servers’ attentiveness and a moderating effect of culture on the relationship of server attentiveness with customer orientation, customer satisfaction and tip. A survey study (N = 975) and an experimental study (N = 145) found that server attentiveness had a positive effect on customer orientation, customer satisfaction and the amount of tip for Americans, but not Japanese customers. Implications and future directions were discussed.     

The impact of the social servicescape,density, and restaurant type on perceptions of interpersonal service quality

The purpose of this study was to investigate how density in the servicescape affects the three interpersonal dimensions of Stevens et al., (1995) DINESERV conceptualization of service quality (responsiveness, assurance, and empathy) across various restaurant types. Using the framework of information processing theory, it was predicted that when a customer uses density to evaluate anticipated service quality, the information processing style will vary depending on the restaurant context. For fine dining restaurants and sports bars, it was predicted that customers will use heuristic processing, but would use systematic processing when evaluating a family casual restaurant. A 3 (contextual service norms) × 2 (built density) × 2 (human density) between subjects factorial design was employed. The results identified a three-way interaction between human density, built density, and restaurant type, suggesting that the type of restaurant does indeed matter when considering how density impacts potential customers’ perceptions of a restaurant.     

Tourists’ willingness to pay for an accommodation: The effect of eWOM and internal reference price

Understanding the determinants of consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) is an important challenge especially for practitioners. This study evaluates the effect of external information (eWOM valence and volume) and internal information (internal reference price) on consumers’ WTP for an accommodation. The results of an online experiment (n = 766) show a direct effect of valence on WTP which is strengthened by both volume and the internal reference price. Consumers with high reference prices are more sensitive to the effect of an increase in valence. Moreover, internal reference price has a non-linear influence on WTP. The findings suggest the relevant role of eWOM as well as internal reference price in determining consumers’ WTP. The inclusion of these two variables in dynamic pricing strategies could lead to greater benefits for hospitality managers.     

Effectiveness of recovery actions on deviant customer behavior—The moderating role of gender

This paper aims to examine how gender interacts with various recovery actions on perceived employee effort, complaint handling satisfaction, and behavioral intention in the case of deviant customer behavior in an East-Asian context. Study 1, a qualitative study, reveals that consumers expect companies to take appropriate remedial actions when a service consumption experience is affected by deviant customer behaviors (e.g., smoking in non designated area). Study 2 employed a 2 (gender) × 6(recovery actions) between subject design in a restaurant setting. Results show that confronting the deviant customer received the highest customer ratings in terms of perceived employee effort, complaint handling satisfaction, and behavioral intention. However, gender moderated the relative effectiveness of recovery actions. Relocating the focal customer was equally good as compensation for women while men were less appreciative of relocation than compensation. In sum, service providers are advised to initiate some form of recovery action in response to deviant customer behaviors.     

Customer responses to intercultural communication accommodation strategies in hospitality service encounters

With the increasing pace of globalization, hospitality firms are serving more and more international customers from distinctively different cultural backgrounds. In order to enhance intercultural consumption experiences, some hospitality firms have implemented two types of communication accommodation strategies: (a) match the cultural background of the service provider and the customer and/or (b) use the customer's native language to facilitate communications. This study aims to examine how such intercultural communication accommodations influence customers’ service encounter experiences. A 4 (communication accommodation: language congruence, ethnic congruence, language and ethnic congruence, and no accommodation) × 2 (focus of communication accommodation: intercultural vs. interpersonal) factorial between-subject experimental design was employed using videotaped hotel check-in scenarios as experimental stimuli. The findings suggest that consumers respond to communication accommodation strategies with increased felt pleasure, arousal, and dominance. Furthermore, accommodation strategies contributed to the perceived symbolic value of the service encounter, especially when employees expressed the intercultural focus of communication accommodation practices. The study results provide insights for hospitality practitioners in managing service encounters in today's highly global world.     

Does offering an organic food menu help restaurants excel in competition? An examination of diners’ decision-making

This study aims to examine whether the presence of an organic food menu can positively influence diners’ decision-making. A 3 (restaurant segment: quick service vs. casual dining vs. fine dining) by 2 (price discrepancy between competing restaurants: small vs. large) scenario-based experiment was conducted with 405 U.S. consumers. MANCOVA results indicate that using organic ingredients offers a greater advantage for the quick-service segment regarding perceived food quality, attitudes towards the restaurant, and willingness to select, compared to casual and fine dining segments. The magnitude of a premium price of organic ingredients negatively influences such advantage in the process of consumers’ decision-making. When a large (vs. small) premium price is charged for using organic ingredients, customers’ preferences for the restaurant (over its rival) significantly drops to such an extent that customers are more willing to choose the competitor (i.e., rival restaurant with a conventional menu). Discussions and implications are further elaborated.     

Health halo effects in sequential food consumption: The moderating roles of health-consciousness and attribute framing

Has the huge increase in healthful food options indeed promoted consumer health? Previous studies have noted the health halo effects of such foods, which subconsciously lead consumers to rather unhealthful eating. This study examined whether the health halos of entrées increase the subsequent intention for desserts in restaurants when moderated by internal and external cues: health-consciousness and attribute framing. A 2 (perceived healthiness of entrées) × 2 (health-consciousness) × 2 (attribute framing of desserts) quasi-experimental design was employed using a scenario-based online survey, and 427 consumers participated in the survey. The results revealed that the effect of the perceived healthiness of entrées on increasing the intention for desserts was more salient among less (vs. highly) health-conscious consumers and when the desserts were framed as healthy (vs. tasty). The findings provide theoretical implications for consumer food behavior and sequential consumption literature, and highlight practical implications for consumers, health professionals, public officials, and restaurateurs.     

Goodwill intended for whom? Examining factors influencing conspicuous prosocial behavior on social media

Despite the popularity of cause-related marketing (CRM), the socially-oriented drivers that influence the success of CRM have yet to be investigated empirically in the hospitality context. This study investigated the effects of three factors (status motive, guilt, and recognition) on customers’ attitudes and intent to participate in CRM promotions through social media. A scenario-based 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects experimental design was used. Results revealed that status-seeking individuals exhibited the high level of prosocial behavior when their behavior was recognized by others publicly compared to non status-seeking individuals. In addition, individuals who felt guilt with regards to a CRM promotional appeal were more likely to respond to the promotion positively than those who did not, when their goodwill was observable by others. Considering this desire of some customers to have their goodwill displayed to others (known as conspicuous prosocial behavior), this study provides important evidence for companies wishing to develop CRM strategies via social media.     

Please,talk about it! When hotel popularity boosts preferences

Many consumers post on-line reviews, affecting the average evaluation of products and services. Yet, little is known about the importance of the number of reviews for consumer decision making. We conducted an on-line experiment (n = 168) to assess the joint impact of the average evaluation, a measure of quality, and the number of reviews, a measure of popularity, on hotel preference. The results show that consumers’ preference increases with the number of reviews, independently of the average evaluation being high or low. This is not what one would expect from an informational point of view, and review websites fail to take this pattern into account. This novel result is mediated by demographics: young people, and in particular young males, are less affected by popularity, relying more on quality. We suggest the adoption of appropriate ranking mechanisms to fit consumer preferences.     

Cigarette induced PM2.5 in hotel rooms: An assessment of the effectiveness of management’s mitigating measures

Many research evidence shows that the pollutants, especially the fine particulate matter (PM2.5), related to cigarette smoking, are harmful to the human body. Given that a hotel room is an almost air-tight setting and not very spacious, knowledge about the concentrations of PM2.5 created by cigarette smoking and the subsequent mitigation measures taken appears to be important in hotel management practice. Thus, field measurements were undertaken in a hotel room to ascertain the cigarette burning and smoking induced pollutant concentrations during the following ON and OFF conditions: with ventilation, with a window open, and using a specific air purifier designed to mitigate the effects of cigarette smoking. The investigation found that cigarette burning and smoking induced PM2.5 concentrations may reach 586 μg/m³ and 1368 μg/m³ on average when ventilation is OFF, respectively. The operation of ventilation may reduce the concentration to about 100 μg/m³. The effectiveness of opening a window as an alleviating measure greatly depends on outdoor PM2.5 concentrations; the observed threshold reference is 100 μg/m³. The tested air purifier works well for cigarette smoking, but not for cigarette burning. Implications of these results on management’s mitigation measures are further discussed in this paper.     

Parametric prediction on default risk of Chinese listed tourism companies by using random oversampling,isomap, and locally linear embeddings on imbalanced samples

This research pioneers the default risk parametric prediction of Chinese tourism companies with random oversampling and manifold learning for parametric modelling on imbalanced samples to relax the requirement on sample availability. Four specific approaches were employed: standardization; standardization → random oversampling; standardization → isomap + locally linear embeddings; and standardization → random oversampling → isomap + locally linear embeddings. Empirical results indicate that: random oversampling successfully improved the tourism default risk prediction; the integration of isomap and locally linear embeddings is beneficial in default risk prediction using highly skewed tourism data with absolute minority samples; and after the use of random oversampling on initial data, the integrated approach improved in forecasting tourism default risk prior to two years versus one year.     

The determinants of hospitality employees’ pro-environmental behaviors: The moderating role of generational differences

Seeking to build a deeper understanding of the determinants of hospitality employees’ pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs), this study explored linkages between employees’ autonomous and external motivations to perform PEBs, environmental concerns, self-efficacy, and employees’ reported PEBs. Hospitality employees (n = 432) indicated that autonomous motivation was associated with increases in employees’ environmental concern, self-efficacy, and PEBs. External motivation was significantly related to employees’ levels of environmental concern and PEBs. Employees’ environmental concern levels had positive effects on self-efficacy and PEBs. Self-efficacy was, in turn, positively associated with PEBs. The relationships between these variables were moderated by generational differences (e.g., Gen X and Gen Y) because generational characteristics might lead to formulating distinct generational perceptions in an organizational context. There were significant differences in the effects of autonomous motivation on environmental concern levels and PEBs between Gen X and Gen Y. In addition, the differences in effects of external motivation on environmental concern and PEBs were statistically significant between the two generations. Lastly, the impacts of environmental concern and self-efficacy on PEBs were significantly different between the two generations as well. Overall, our results suggest that the interplay of autonomous motivation, external motivation, environmental concern, and self-efficacy is important to the process of influencing hospitality employees’ PEBs.     

Benefits and transaction costs of purchasing local foods in school districts

Although there are several benefits associated with the consumption and increased awareness of locally grown foods in school districts, there are also costs that prevent increasing the purchase of local foods. This study examined the main benefits and transaction costs perceived by school foodservice directors in a Northeastern State when purchasing local foods. Qualitative semi-structured interviews with school districts’ foodservice directors (N = 11) were conducted. The main criteria for participation was to target school districts who previously or currently purchased locally grown food items. The study showed that school foodservice directors categorized price, food safety and availability as the main components of transaction costs associated with the purchase of locally grown products. They also identified several benefits, such as supporting the local economy, providing better quality food, and ensuring students have access to healthier foods. Future studies could build on these findings to identify specific measures of transaction costs.     

Changing perceptions and reasoning process: Comparison of residents’ pre- and post-event attitudes

Upon a systematic assessment of how residents’ trust in government(s) and attachment to a marquee event influence their evaluations of the event’s impacts and subsequent attitudes towards the hosting of the event, this study further explores the dynamic nature of residents’ subjective evaluations and corresponding attitudes to the event. In line with the confirmation bias theory, findings clearly demonstrate that residents’ trust in government(s), attachment to the event, perceptions of the event’s impacts and ultimate support to the event have changed in a predictable manner over time. Moreover, findings indicate that individuals’ direct experience with the event alters the associations between their cognitive/affective evaluations and attitudes towards the event, with a shifted focus to the cognitive evaluations after the event.     

Tourists' strategies: An acculturation approach

Acculturation theory has been widely used to understand and explain migrant and sojourner adaptation. However, it has yet to be examined in a tourist context. We extended the literature by evaluating the applicability of Berry's (1997) bidimensional acculturation model to a sample of 668 recent and prospective international travelers from China (n = 205), Germany (n = 201), and the United States (n = 262). Our results suggested that the acculturation model can be extended to tourist contexts and used for segmentation purposes. Specifically, tourists' acculturation strategies were associated with their preferences for home culture maintenance and host culture immersion, as well as behavioral, holiday, and activity preferences. Ethnocentrism and uncertainty avoidance were also found to vary as a function of tourists' acculturation strategy.