Female Managers' Ethical Decision-Making: A Multidimensional Approach

The increasing number and influence of women in society brings up several issues related to values and ethics. Looking at business ethics from the gender perspective made us ponder if it would be fruitful to analyse the feminine and masculine dimensions of decision-making style. The article follows the research tradition using the multidimensional ethics scale, and it aims at developing the scale to better include female decision-making. We came to the conclusion that, as the multidimensional ethics scale used in measuring managers' moral decision-making is derived from modern ethical theories focusing on indications of masculinities more than femininities, the scale leaves feminine decision-making dimensions invisible. Our argument is that in seeking a deeper understanding of (female) managers' moral decision-making, we must find a broader basis for the analysis and develop the scale further so that it allows different voices to be heard and different dimensions to be seen.     

Developing Moral Principles and Scenarios in the Light of Diversity: An Extension to the Multidimensional Ethics Scale

The purpose of this article is to develop the multidimensional ethics scale and moral scenarios that allow or even support diversity in managers’ reactions when measuring their moral decision-making. This means that we expand the multidimensional ethics scale with a female ethics dimension and take a critical look at the previously used scenarios in the light of diversity. Furthermore, we develop two new scenarios in order to better attain diversity in managers’ moral decision-making. Diversity is primarily looked at from a gender perspective, meaning that we pay attention to the femininities and masculinities of the scale items and scenarios. In addition, we use the concept of social desirability to assess diversity as we presume that social desirability works against diversity. Our article builds on previous research using the multidimensional ethics scale. First, we present a summary of the theoretical dimensions of the original multidimensional ethics scale and extend the scale with female ethics principles to foster diversity. Second, we analyse and assess previously used moral scenarios in order to see how they permit the expression of diversity. Third, we develop two new scenarios based on the interviews conducted with female managers.     

The Effect of Implicit Moral Attitudes on Managerial Decision-Making: An Implicit Social Cognition Approach

This article concerns itself with the relationship between implicit moral cognitions and decisions in the realm of business ethics. Traditionally, business ethics research emphasized the effects of overt or␣explicit attitudes on ethical decision-making and neglected intuitive or implicit attitudes. Therefore, based on an implicit social cognition approach it is important to␣know whether implicit moral attitudes may have a substantial impact on managerial ethical decision-making processes. To test this thesis, a study with 50 participants was conducted. In this study the participants were asked to work on a deliberative managerial ethical decision-making task, in which they had to decide on one of two options. Implicit moral attitudes towards the two options were measured using the implicit association test (IAT). A semantic differential scale was used to diagnose explicit moral attitudes towards the two options. Each step taken within the deliberative decision-making process, as well the decision itself, was assessed using a scoring model-based decision analysis and a decision-making questionnaire. The results of this study show that implicit moral attitude has a great influence on the deliberative ethical decision-making process. The derived conclusion is that complex and deliberative decision-making processes in the context of business ethics can be affected by implicit social cognitions such as implicit moral attitudes.     

Psychometric Properties of the Reidenbach–Robin Multidimensional Ethics Scale

The factor structure of the Multidimensional Ethics Scale (MES; Reidenbach and Robin: 1988, Journal of Business Ethics 7, 871–879; 1990, Journal of Business Ethics 9, 639–653) was examined for the 8-item short form (N = 328) and the original 30-item pool (N = 260). The objectives of the study were: to verify the dimensionality of the MES; to increase the amount of true cross-scenario variance through the use of 18 scenarios varying in moral intensity (Jones: 1991, Academy of Management Review 16, 366–395); and, to examine the items for measurement precision using item-response theory (IRT) methods. Results of confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis failed to conclusively support the hypothesized 3- (short form) or 5-factor (long form) structure; both instruments were instead dominated by a general factor. Item response theory analyses using Samejima’s (1969, Psychometrika Monograph Supplement 34, (4, Pt. 2)) graded response model revealed that many items in the 30-item pool performed very well, and suggested that a different collection of items be used to form a short-form version of the MES. Our proposed 10-item instrument includes more discriminating items than the 8-item version, and has the added advantage of including two items from each of the five ethical philosophies represented in the original 30-item pool. Joan M. McMahon is an Assistant Professor of Management in the School of Business at Christopher Newport University, teaching courses in Organizational Behavior, Leadership, and Human Resources. She has a B.A. in Speech from the State University of New York, College at Oneonta; an M.Ed. In Early Childhood Education from James Madison University; and an M.S. and Ph.D. in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Robert J. Harvey is an Associate Professor of Psychology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He has a B.A. in Psychology and an M.A. in Experimental Psychology from the University of Missouri at Kansas City, and a Ph.D. in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from Ohio State University. Dr. Harvey has authored a number of articles in the Journal of Applied Psychology, the Journal of Personality Assessment, Personnel Psychology, and others. He is the author of the chapter on job analysis in the Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology.     

Ethics on the Web: Applying Moral Decision-Making to the New Media

This paper examines the advent of the Web as a critical media tool in the promotion and sale of goods to consumers and the ethical questions it raises that are issues of public policy. We examine four traditional ethical rationales that guide organizational decision-making – utilitarianism, distributive justice, moral rights of man and relativism, further characterized as "ends-based", "equity-based", "rules-based" and "comparison-based" rationales – and we apply them to four moral dilemmas attributed to the proliferation of dot.com companies as they relate to consumer welfare. We find that ethical rationale in the New Media is largely non-existent, and where it exists, it is primarily reactive and driven by utilitarian or relativistic reasoning. We attribute this condition to the newness of the industry and to its economic context, representing, as it does, many characteristics embodied in the concept of the "perfect market." We offer some remedies to improve ethical conduct by e-business.     

中国古代政府管制思想史的研究路径刍议——在现代学理与历史经验之间

作为系列研究的开篇,本文希冀在现代政府管制经济学与中国传统的思想文化之间寻求对话的可能性,为《中国政府管制思想史·古代篇》的编写提供一个切实可行的研究路径。首先,在中国古代的文献典籍中,并没有一个专门的词汇可以完全对应于现代经济学中的"政府管制"概念,所以,当我们运用现代学科概念来规范"中国政府管制思想史"的研究对象和内容时,必须严格界定"政府管制"的现代涵义及其在中国历史语境中的适用性。其次,在前一项工作的基础上,追溯政府管制思想背后的思想渊源和基本取向,从中整理出一条相对清晰的主线索,纲张目举,以便于我们在后续研究中对中国政府管制思想的产生、发展及其规律性以及对现实的作用和对后世的影响等进行系统考察。     

Managerial Decision-Making on Moral Issues and the Effects of Teaching Ethics

This study uses judgment and decision-making (JDM) perspective with the help of framing and schema literature from cognitive psychology to evaluate how managers behave when problems with unethical overtones are presented to them in a managerial frame rather than an ethical frame. In the proposed managerial model, moral judgment of the situation is one of the inputs to managerial judgment, among several other inputs regarding costs and benefits of various alternatives. Managerial judgment results in managerial intent leading to managerial action. The model and the effects of taking an ethics course on ethical and managerial judgment and managerial intent were then indirectly tested in this study, wherein subjects judged the ethical wrongness, managerial badness, and the managerial intent regarding decisions made in a case. Forty-nine MBA students analyzed a case involving budget-based bonuses and production, in which the ethical issue evolved over three stages. It appears from the Path-analysis results that managerial judgment mediated between moral judgment and the judgment of managerial intent as suggested by the proposed model, and that taking an ethics course directly affected managerial judgment but did not affect the moral judgment. Additionally, in the first stage of decision-making (early stage of a developing “ethical slippery slope”), moral judgment did not significantly influence managerial judgment. However, students with ethics course still were more inclined to judge the decision as managerially bad as compared to others, indicating that they were more aware or sensitive to the moral issues involved.     

A Multi-Agent ODSS Architecture for Supporting Distributed Decision-Making

In this paper, we present an architecture of an ODSS that focuses on organizational learning to enhance the organization's memory and distribution of the organization's intelligence throughout the organization to the various units that need it in their decision-making process. Learning in this ODSS is done by multiple intelligent agents that are designed to gather, accumulate and classify information in order to assist the decision-maker.     

Ethical Rationality: A Strategic Approach to Organizational Crisis

In this paper, we present an ethical and strategic approach to managing organizational crises. The proposed crisis management model (1) offers a new approach to guide an organization’s strategic and ethical response to crisis, and (2) provides a two-by-two framework for classifying organizational crises. The ethically rational approach to crisis draws upon strategic rationality, crisis, and ethics literature to understand and address organizational crises. Recent examples of corporate crises are employed to illustrate the theoretical claims advanced. Finally, the paper provides guidelines for a morally optimal outcome for the organization and its stakeholders. Peter Snyder is a Ph.D. student in Organizations and Strategic Management at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. His research interests include strategy making and corporate governance. Molly Hall is an attorney who practices international and environmental law in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. She teaches adjunct courses in business ethics, environmental policy, and the European Union. Joline Robertson is a Ph.D. candidate in Organizations and Strategic Management at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Her research interests include international business. Tomasz Jasinski is a Ph.D. student in Organizations and Strategic Management at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. His research interests include strategic alliances. Janice S. Miller received her Ph.D. from Arizona State Univerity in Business Administration with a concentration in Human Resource management. She has been on the faculty at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee UWM since 1996 and has served as the Associate Dean for Academic Programs in the School of Business Administration since 2002. Dr. Miller’s primary research interests include performance management, compensation and ethical issues in organizations.     

煤电企业生命周期阶段界定的方法研究

煤电企业具有特定的生命周期轨迹,从企业生命周期角度来研究煤电企业具有较高的理论和现实意义。基于企业生命周期理论,选取了反映公司盈利能力、成长能力、营运能力、偿债能力和现金能力五方面的指标来建立了界定企业生命周期阶段的指标体系。选用2007年-2013年郑州煤电股份有限公司的季度财务数据,运用AHP法和熵权法分别计算企业在每个阶段和综合的财务指标权重,再运用判别分法以距离小为判别标准判断出郑州煤电股份有限公司属于生命周期阶段的成长期。     

Advertising Effectiveness of Different Media in Promoting Technology-Oriented Ideas among Young Consumers: A Multidimensional Study

Historically, media choice criteria have mostly been company driven. This article offers a four-dimensional 17-item media effectiveness assessment index as perceived by young consumers. The methodology of the study is based on quantitative data collected from 1,257 respondents in Bangladesh. Radio was rated best in six out of 17 criteria whereas TV and billboard were found to be the second choice. Radio was found to be the most effective medium in creating purchase intention. As the study didn’t find complete domination by any single medium, the paper recommends a mixed-media strategy while dealing with young consumers.     

Cynicism as a Fundamental Dimension of Moral Decision-Making: A Scale Development

Altruism and cynicism are two fundamental algorithms of moral decision-making. This derives from the evolution of cooperative behavior and reciprocal altruism and the need to avoid being taken advantage of. Rushton (1986) developed a self-report scale to measure altruism, however no scale to measure cynicism has been developed for use in ethics research. Following a discussion of reciprocal altruism and cynicism, this article presents an 11-item self-report scale to measure cynicism, developed and validated using a sample of 271 customer-service and sales personnel.     

The Relationship of Ethical Decision-Making to Business Ethics and Performance in Taiwan

This paper examines the relationship of ethical decision-making by individuals to corporate business ethics and organizational performance of three groups: (i) SMEs (small and medium enterprises), (ii) Outstanding SMEs (the Key Stone Award winners) and (iii) Large Enterprises, in order to provide a reference for Taiwanese entrepreneurs to practice better business ethics. The survey method involved random sampling of 132 enterprises within three groups. Some 524 out of 1320 questionnaires were valid. The survey results demonstrated that ethical decision-making by individuals, corporate business ethics and organizational performance are highly related. In summary, then, high levels of organizational performance were directly attributable to high levels of applied corporate and individual ethics. Furthermore, there is a demonstrable tendency for Outstanding SMEs to reject ethically unsound practices such as padded expense accounts, tax evasion and misleading advertising. The measurement criteria used to assess organizational performance, however, did not include an objective evaluation of financial performance.     

Is Decision Style Related to Moral Development Among Managers in the U.S.?

The decision making process is an important aspect of the managerial function that is becoming increasingly complex due to technological and global impacts. It is essential, therefore, to understand why various managers approach the decision making process differently. One area that is related to how managers perceive and process the information that is associated with decision making, is that of decision style.It is not enough, however, to explore decision style in isolation, as some of the decisions that managers make often entail ethical components concerning the ability to balance the interests of diverse groups. Moral reasoning is therefore important for every manager, and could impact the decision style that is employed by such managers. The relationship between managerial decision style and moral development is one that could provide unique insights into the area of decision making, yet it is an area that has remained relatively unexplored.Using Alan Rowe's Decision Style Inventory (DSI), in conjunction with James Rest's Defining Issues Test (DIT), the purpose of this study was to ascertain the relationship between decision style and moral development among U.S. managers.The findings of this study of 270 managers suggest that there is a relationship between higher directive decision style scores and lower principled reasoning scores. Since the focus of individuals who demonstrate a directive decision style is on task completion, perhaps the consideration of the many alternatives that are necessary to reason at a more ethically attuned level is neglected. Managers who exhibit a directive decision style might be responsible for the management of non-managerial populations of workers, and in such a capacity, set the ethical tones and examples for employees to follow. Since training and educational interventions in the area of ethics have been shown to increase moral development scores, those managers who are identified as displaying a directive decision style might benefit from such training.     

Ethical Decision-Making: A Case for the Triple Font Theory

This paper discusses the philosophical argument and the application of the Triple Font Theory (TFT) for moral evaluation of human acts and attempts to integrate the conceptual components of major moral theories into a systematic internally consistent decision-making model that is theoretically driven. The paper incorporates concepts such as formal and material cooperation and the Principle of Double Effect (PDE) into the theoretical framework. It also advances the thesis that virtue theory ought to be included in any adequate justification of morality and the need to integrate or coordinate notions of virtue into various act-oriented or principles-based ethics. The TFT offers a comprehensive and practical approach to ethical decision-making and is a useful alternative embedded in traditional wisdom. This paper provides a more general framework of the TFT than traditionally presented. Practical judgment is shown to play a constitute role in providing a guide for right action and is the “glue” that integrates the various components of the TFT. Surendra Arjoon is an Associate Professor of Business Ethics at the University of the West Indies, Trinidad. He has served as Chair, Department of Management Studies and as Associate Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences. He is also Vice President of the Trinidad & Tobago Economics Association. His work has appeared in the Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Markets and Morality, Global Development Studies, Applied Financial Economics, and Social and Economic Studies.     

河南省服务业支柱产业选择研究——基于多维面板数据的因子分析

河南省服务业发展长期处于落后地位,为此,选择和培育服务业支柱产业对于引导和推动河南省服务业发展起着至关重要的作用。通过选取2006—2012年十四类服务行业数据,采用多维面板数据的因子分析方法,从产业规模、产业增长潜力、产业竞争优势、产业经济效益四个层面对河南省各服务行业发展水平进行评价,并结合河南省经济和资源实际状况,最终选择了批发和零售业、金融业、教育、住宿和餐饮业、交通运输和仓储及邮政业等行业作为河南省服务业支柱产业。     

The Spirit of Entrepreneurship and the Qualities of Moral Decision Making: Toward A Unifying Framework

At the heart of entrepreneurship are imagination, creativity, novelty, and sensitivity. It takes these qualities to develop a new product or service and bring it to market, to envision the possible impacts a new product may make and come up with novel and creative solutions to problems that may arise. These qualities go to make up what could be called the spirit of entrepreneurship, a spirit that involves the ability to handle the experimental nature of entrepreunerial activity. These same qualities are crucial for moral decision making, and an ethical approach which emphasizes imagination, creativity, and has an experimental thrust is much better adapted to the entrepreneurial activity and much more relevant to the unique situations that entrepreneurs face. In this sense, the process approach to ethics developed in this article is a unifying framework that brings together the activity of entrepreneurship and moral decision making.     

A CoPs Approach to Knowledge Governance： A University-Industry Case Study in China

This research explores knowledge sharing behaviors, aiming at developing good knowledge governance （KG） mechanisms and promoting university-industry ring phenomenon in China. Empirical evidence concerning the operation of KG, collected through interviews and relevant documentary materials, is analyzed through the lens of communities of practices （CoPs） approach to situated learning. Our case study lends support to the conceptualizing process of KG, in which task design, quality control, innovative capitalists, and relational intellectual property serve as KG mechanisms for promoting university-industry collaboration. In addition, our analysis highlights the significance of associates＇ roles in KG for facilitating knowledge sharing behaviors. This research provides empirical evidence for understanding KG in university-industry collaboration.     

A Note on the Use of Survey Research Firms to Enable Empirical Data Collection

This forward thinking article examines the risks and rewards of using survey research firms to enable empirical data collection, and issues a cautionary note about its application. An exposition and discussion of this form of data collection in supply chain management is relevant today, due to the “survey‐fatigue” among the population of business professionals from whom we seek a response. While this approach has some history in other disciplines, it is still relatively new among supply chain management researchers. To help supply chain management scholars assess the appropriateness of this type of data collection method, this forward thinking article provides invaluable guidance as derived from the authors' recent experiences with the approach. As such, we share our observations and lessons learned. The conclusion is that the use of survey research firms for empirical data collection can be a viable, alternative approach to self‐administered surveys. However, care should be taken in its application.