Strategic revenue recognition to achieve earnings benchmarks

I examine whether managers use discretion in revenue recognition to avoid three earnings benchmarks. I find that managers use discretion in both accrued revenue (i.e., accounts receivable) and deferred revenue (i.e., advances from customers) to avoid negative earnings surprises, but find little evidence that discretion is used to avoid losses or earnings decreases. For a common sample of firms with both deferred revenue and accounts receivable, I find evidence that managers do not prefer to exercise discretion in either account. However, further tests show that managers preferred to use discretion in deferred revenue before the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 went into effect, consistent with them choosing to manage an account with the lowest real costs to the firm (i.e., future cash consequences). My results suggest that the revenue recognition joint project undertaken by the FASB and IASB to reduce managerial estimation in revenue recognition may have the unintended consequence of leading to greater real costs imposed on shareholders as firms are likely to use even greater discretion in accounts receivable.     

Valuation consequences of regulatory changes in revenue recognition: Evidence from advertising barter sales

This study compares the valuation of advertising barter sales recognized under APB Opinion No. 29, relative to transactions recorded under EITF Issue No. 99-17. EITF 99-17 was the FASB's response to the perception that Internet-related firms were overstating revenue. The results indicate an inverse relation between price-to-sales ratios and the amount of advertising barter recorded under APB 29 by e-tailing firms. In contrast, we find no evidence of a discount for similar transactions recognized under EITF 99-17. This change in value relevance is consistent with increased credibility of recorded revenue. These results have implications for revenue recognition practices and accounting regulation.     

Selling-price estimates in revenue recognition and the usefulness of financial statements

Revenue is one of the largest and most value-relevant items in firms’ financial statements. Based on the “realizable” and the “earned” criteria of SFAC No. 5 (FASB in Concepts statement no. 5. Recognition and measurement in financial statements of business enterprises, 1984), revenues should reflect both selling price and timing of delivery. Of those two aspects, selling-price estimates are required for revenue recognition when standalone selling prices for products and services are not available. In this study, I examine the effects of selling-price estimates in revenue recognition on the contracting and informational roles of financial statements. Particularly, I examine the setting of SOP 97-2 (AICPA in Software revenue recognition. Statement of Position (SOP) 97-2, AICPA, New York, 1997) that removed software firms’ flexibility to recognize revenues using selling-price estimates. I find that SOP 97-2 implementation did not improve the contracting role of earnings. However its implementation partly shifted the informational role of financial statements from income-statement to balance-sheet components.     

An empirical study of auction revenue rankings: the case of municipal bonds

Using a novel dataset of 386 first‐price municipal bond auctions held in California, I perform counterfactual revenue comparisons, based on the theoretical result of Milgrom and Weber (1982). I show that the revenue in the second‐price auction is nonparametrically identified, and the counterfactual revenue in the English auction can be bounded in an informative way. These results form a basis for nonparametric estimation of counterfactual revenue differences. I find that the revenue gain from using the English auction would be in the range of 11%—19% of the gross underwriting spread, and that most of it would already be captured by using the second‐price auction. The recent explosive growth of Internet English auctions, administered by Grant Street Group, provides external support to the claim that auction design matters in this market.     

Discretion in revenue recognition timing and comparability: Evidence from the implementation of SOP 97-2

An objective of financial reporting regulation is to encourage the production of decision-useful information. This paper examines the association between the level of discretion allowed in accounting standards and comparability, a key characteristic of decision-useful reporting. To study this link, I investigate changes in comparability around regulation SOP 97-2, which decreased discretion in the timing of revenue recognition on software-related transactions. Using a difference-in-differences research design, I find a positive association between discretion and comparability for affected firms, relative to control firms. This result is attenuated for firms with low reporting quality prior to the rule change and those that experienced a larger direct impact on their revenue recognition practices. This paper furthers understanding of the linkage between reporting discretion and the decision-usefulness of accounting outputs. Additionally, the results highlight the complex interactions between various financial reporting attributes.     

Valuing a high-tech growth company: the case of EchoStar Communications Corporation

This article uses real options to value a high-tech company with significant growth option potential. The case of EchoStar Communications Corporation is used as an illustration. The company's growth opportunities are modeled and valued as a portfolio of growth options, namely options to expand its pay television, equipment, and internet services. Expansion of the main business can occur geographically (in the USA, internationally, and through partnerships) or through cross-selling of new products and services to its customer base. The internet business can expand via switching to digital subscriber line and through partnerships. The underlying asset (business) for the expansion options is the ‘base’ discounted cash flow (DCF), after removing the constant growth rate in the terminal-value DCF assumption. The options-based estimate of present value of growth opportunities (PVGO) value substitutes for the terminal growth DCF estimate. We show that our options-based portfolio PVGO provides a better estimate of the firm's growth prospects than the terminal growth DCF assumption.     

Disclosure versus recognition: the case of expensing stock options

The SFAS 123R comment process generated over 6,500 comment letters, most of which were against the standard’s enactment. This outpouring of emotion indicates that many believe that disclosure versus recognition matters. Our paper provides evidence for the debate whether managers’ discretion, motivation, and accuracy of stock option estimates differ under the recognition and disclosure reporting regimes. We compare firms that are mandatorily forced to recognize stock options expense with those voluntarily choosing to do so. First we find that mandatory firms (versus voluntary) with more intensive stock option granting tend to understate option estimates, especially in the post SFAS123R period. Our results suggest that a higher recognition cost motivates firms for doing so. Second, we find that mandatory firms with lower future operating risk have better accuracy in the post SFAS123R period, as compared to themselves in the pre SFAS123R period and voluntary firms in the post SFAS123 period. Our results support the notion that the informativeness of option estimates explains the level of accuracy. The findings of this paper add to the debate on the benefits of recognizing stock option expenses.     

Financial statement effects of adopting international accounting standards: the case of Germany

Using a sample of German firms, we investigate the financial statement effects of adopting International Accounting Standards (IAS) during 1998 through 2002. We find that total assets and book value of equity, as well as variability of book value and income, are significantly higher under IAS than under German GAAP (HGB). In addition, book value and income are no more value relevant under IAS than under HGB, and HGB (IAS) income is highly persistent (transitory). Finally, we find weak evidence that IAS income exhibits greater conditional conservatism than HGB income. Our results are consistent with the fair-value (income smoothing) orientation of IAS (HGB).

Economic analysis of accountants' ethical standards: The case of audit opinion shopping

The public accounting profession presently employs a strict system of ethical standards that relies upon explicit rules plus monitoring and enforcement procedures that penalize violations of the rules. An alternative approach to ethical standards that the public accounting profession may wish to consider is a laissez faire approach. Instead of rules and penalties to enforce desired behaviors, the laissez faire approach utilizes moral training and leadership to motivate professional accountants to act in the public interest, for the sake of the profession as a whole. The theoretical basis for the laissez faire approach is a growing body of evidence in economics and related disciplines that people often take actions to further the collective welfare of a group despite a detrimental effect on their own selfish interests. This paper offers a framework for examining the relative economic merits of the strict and laissez faire approaches to ethical standards within the accounting profession. The framework is based on game theory, and the setting employed in the paper involves opinion shopping by audit clients. The paper finds that the effectiveness of a laissez faire approach to ethical standards, at least in the opinion-shopping scenario, is related to (a) the ethical climate, which refers to the likelihood a given independent auditor will choose the ethical action, (b) the frequency of independent auditor rotation, which reduces the economic advantage of being the incumbent auditor, (c) the explicitness of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), which reduces uncertainty over whether or not a particular act is ethical, (d) the availability of opportunities to discuss ethical choices with rival auditors, and (e) disclosure requirements associated with auditor–client disputes over material accounting issues.     

Educational standards for management accountants: A critical need

The last five years have seen the development of a trend that may be characterized as “the professionalization of accounting education”. One major element of this movement has been the development of a formal recommended curriculum for students planning a career in public accounting. However, a similar proposed curriculum for management accounting students has not resulted. Although the management accounting profession has made great advances during the past few years, a single formal recommended curriculum has not been developed.This article expresses concern over the lack of such a curriculum, and urges the management accounting arm of the profession to join in developing a single recommended academic curriculum for management accountants.     

Auditor litigation: Evidence that revenue restatements are determinative

This study extends the Palmrose and Scholz (2004) general litigation and general restatements study by focusing on auditor litigation and revenue restatements. We investigate all potential accounting issues, individually, instead of by their group method, with regard to auditor litigation. The impact of the individual accounting issues implicated in restatements is of concern to auditors and audit standard setters in gauging auditor litigation risk and audit risk. It also is important for financial analysis and securities valuation because investors' losses are greater, and recovery of losses on a percentage basis is lower, when the auditor is a defendant, and especially when the auditor has a more severe, negative litigation experience (Commolli et al., 2012). We examine financial reporting lawsuits filed from 2001 to 2008 and find that revenue restatements—far more than any other kind of restatements—are associated with auditors being named defendants and also auditors experiencing a more severe, negative outcome in the litigation.     

The effect of principles-based standards on financial statement comparability: The case of SFAS-142

This study examines the effects of a prominent principles-based standard (SFAS-142, Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets) on financial statement comparability. Using non-goodwill-intensive firms as our control group, we implement a difference-in-differences research design to examine how SFAS-142 affects comparability among goodwill-intensive firms (i.e. a treatment group), and comparability between goodwill-intensive firms and non-goodwill-intensive firms (i.e. another treatment group). We find that SFAS-142 decreases comparability among goodwill-intensive firms, as well as comparability between goodwill-intensive and non-goodwill-intensive firms. We also find that these reductions in comparability are less severe when the verifiability of net assets is higher. Overall, the results suggest that principles-based standards may reduce comparability, particularly when the accounting items entail high uncertainty and verifiability is low.     

Co-movement of revenue: structural changes in the business cycle

The co-movement of revenue growth across different industries changes over the business cycle. Using a large sample of quarterly firm revenues, aggregated to industry data from 1969 to 2009, we demonstrate that the correlation is the highest during a crisis. Our findings of structural changes in correlation have implications for diversification decisions in portfolio analysis and risk management. The higher correlation in crisis periods increases the downside risk and bankruptcy probability of business portfolios. We test the hypothesis that average correlations are significantly different, by applying permutation and bootstrap techniques. As robustness checks, both correlations between industries and the aggregate market and correlations between earnings confirm our findings.     

创新审计准则体系维护社会公众利益

依据科学、严谨的审计准则,对财务信息进行审计鉴证,保障经济活动有序运行,是政府、公众和市场对注册会计师行业的期待,是注册会计师职业的职责,也赋予审计准则建设者艰巨的使命.过去十多年来,在财政部指导下,中国注册会计师协会一直致力于审计准则的建设工作,陆续制定实施了一系列审计准则,这对于提升注册会计师的执业质量,促进注册会计师行业的专业化发展,以及服务于市场经济建设,都起到了积极作用.审计准则作为衡量与保障注册会计师执业质量的权威标准,已得到社会各界的广泛认同.     

Accounting for varieties of capitalism: The case against a single set of global accounting standards

This paper argues that the optimal design of accounting standards may depend on the institutional characteristics of the political and economic system. There are several varieties of capitalism, and it is not obvious which of these varieties is best. Moreover, the existence of different varieties of capitalism arguably promotes economic progress. This being the case the paper urges a cautious approach to the imposition of a single set of global accounting standards for all companies. The forced adoption of single form of accounting runs the risk of severely restricting the different forms of capitalism that can develop. It also privileges one particular way of doing business over alternative forms that currently exist or, more importantly, may exist in the future. In effect the forced adoption of a single form of accounting can be viewed as a form of restrictive practice that prevents alternative and superior ways of doing business from taking shape. International accounting standards optimised for stock market based capitalism are not necessarily optimal for other forms of capitalism and, since stock market capitalism has lost credibility as a way of doing business, the world may be better served by encouraging alternative forms of capitalism to develop with accounting standards tailored to their needs.     

中国企业会计准则建设的可贵实践和崭新突破

经过多年的艰苦努力和不懈奋斗,今天,中国企业会计准则体系终于发布了。中国企业会计准则建设,是与我国改革开放的历史进程和建立并完善社会主义市场经济体制的时代要求相伴相随、相互促进的。在十多年的建设实践中,我们始终不渝地遵循下列指导原则,确保企业会计准则具有科学性、前瞻性和可操作性:———中国企业会计准则建设,必须为促进我国经济社会发展服务。会计准则作为市场经济“游戏规则”的重要组成部分,为更好地发挥市场在资源配置中的基础性作用提供技术支持和信息保障。完善社会主义市场经济体制,需要健全会计准则体系;同时,只有…     

深入宣传贯彻会计审计准则 完善社会主义市场经济体制

2月15日,财政部在京举行会计审计准则体系发布会,发布了39项企业会计准则和48项注册会计师审计准则。发布会由财政部副部长王军主持,财政部部长金人庆、财政部副部长、会计准则委员会主席楼继伟、中国注册会计师协会会长刘仲藜出席会议并发表讲话,有关方面代表及国际会计准则委员会主席戴维·泰迪、国际会计师联合会主席格雷厄姆·沃德参加了会议并发言。现摘编有关领导的讲话,供大家学习、研究时参考。