迁移、自选择与收入分配——来自中国城乡的证据

本文强调两个事实：第一,农村居民并非同质,他们根据自身的特征决定迁移与否;第二,那些成功地改变了户籍身份的永久移民与没能改变户籍身份的临时移民之间有着显著的差异。利用2002年的CHIP数据发现,永久移民的“正选择”效应非常明显,它使得农村地区教育水平较高、处于收入分布较高位置的样本减少。这导致农村的收入水平和农村内部的不平等程度降低,阻碍了城乡差距的降低。相反,临时移民的选择效应几乎可以忽略不计。     

迁移、自选择与收入分配-来自中国城乡的证据

本文强调两个事实:第一,农村居民并非同质,他们根据自身的特征决定迁移与否;第二,那些成功地改变了户籍身份的永久移民与没能改变户籍身份的临时移民之间有着显著的差异.利用2002年的CHIP数据发现,永久移民的"正选择"效应非常明显,它使得农村地区教育水平较高、处于收入分布较高位置的样本减少.这导致农村的收入水平和农村内部的不平等程度降低,阻碍了城乡差距的降低.相反,临时移民的选择效应几乎可以忽略不计.     

户籍制度背景下农民工与城市移民的储蓄率差异

本文基于异质性主体的三期世代交叠模型,从理论上刻画了作为短期移民的农民工和农村进城永久移民的储蓄率差异。由于户籍差异,农民工在城市中的经济状况欠佳且无健全的社会保障,为了支付老年时期的生活成本,他们在城市工作期间的储蓄率会高于实现了户籍身份转换的永久移民。进一步地,本文使用CHIP2013年数据对农民工和永久移民的储蓄率差异进行了RIF回归分解。总分解结果表明,要素效应缩小了农民工与永久移民的储蓄率差异,而结构效应却会扩大两者储蓄率的差异;构成分解结果进一步表明,户主的人力资本特征差异会缩小两者储蓄率的差距,而家庭收入的差异扩大了两者储蓄率的差距。因此,深化户籍制度改革将使更多的农民工成为城市永久居民,这能够增加他们在城市的消费,从而起到城镇化带动消费的作用。另外,储蓄行为是移民经济社会融合的一种表现形式,户籍身份转换带来的消费提升也有助于促进农民工在城市的融合。     

迁移类型、户籍身份与工资收入水平*

本文基于2013年中国居民收入调查数据（CHIP）,考察各类迁移对工资收入水平的影响。OLS及PSM估计结果均表明各类迁移有利于工资收入水平的提升;采用局部工具变量法进行稳健性检验,发现本文的研究结论依然成立。分迁移范围来看,市外迁移的平均收入增长效应大于市内迁移的平均收入增长效应;分户籍类型来看,农村户籍迁移的平均收入增长效应大于城市户籍的平均收入增长效应。综合比较各种迁移类型的收入增长效应,由强至弱可以将其排列为：永久移民市外迁移、农村户籍市外迁移、本地居民市外迁移、城市户籍市外迁移、农村户籍市内迁移、城市户籍市内迁移、本地居民市内迁移、永久移民市内迁移。城市化的核心在于满足居民的自由迁移意愿,从本文的研究结论来看,鼓励就近城市化而妨碍人口跨区域流动的城市化模式尚未得到收入增长激励的支撑。在推动户籍制度改革及公共服务均等化的同时,应注重建立全国统一的要素市场,进一步完善城市的空间结构体系。     

中国的永久移民

中国的户口制度阻碍了农村居民向城市的迁移。然而,农村居民仍能通过接受较好的教育、提干或参军等方式获得城市户口。利用2002年的大样本调查,我们发现永久移民的数量大约为1亿,约占现今城市居民的20%。与留在农村的农民相比,永久移民的经济状况得到了很大的改善。成为永久移民的概率与父母教育水平、汉族身份、父母党员身份等正相关。永久移民的经济状况与获得户口时的年龄有关。较年轻时就获得户口的永久移民的收入要高于城市原住民,较晚获得户口的永久移民的收入则要低于城市原住民。尽管大部分永久移民成功地融入了城市生活,但那些通过非职业途径获得户口的永久移民,却远非如此。     

迁移行为、户籍获取与城市移民幸福感流失

本文基于中国的微观调查数据研究发现,个人年收入与幸福感呈"倒U型"关系,获得户籍迁移者与城市原居民的"收入-幸福"饱和点为年收入5.47万元,未获得户籍者的这一数值高达37万元,从年收入层面来看多数居民的"幸福拐点"尚未到来。进一步运用平均处理效应估计方法,考察迁移行为和户籍身份对城市移民幸福感的影响。线性假定的模型发现,考察迁移对个人幸福感的影响时需要考虑个体异质性,估计结果则表明获取户籍迁移并未降低迁移者的幸福感,未获取户籍迁移则降低了迁移者的幸福感。非线性假定模型的估计结果表明,未获取户籍迁移者的幸福感显著低于获取户籍迁移者。可见,未获取户籍迁移者幸福感更低,并不能被迁移行为本身所解释,而是缺失所在城市户籍身份导致迁移者的幸福感"流失"。     

教育、户籍转换与城乡教育收益率差异

为何农村教育收益率低于城市,但农村居民的教育需求却很高?这种看似矛盾的现象可以从教育帮助农村居民突破户籍限制的角度进行解释。利用中国居民收入调查数据(CHIP2013),通过将极度正向选择性的永久移民分离出来,并放回到农村样本中去以修正样本选择偏差,以1986年义务教育法实施的自然实验作为工具变量,我们发现农村教育收益率有显著提高,由原始样本的3.2%提高到5.7%。对农村居民而言,往往是高等教育更有利于他们突破户籍限制,因而,我们还估计了大学教育收益率,发现城市大学教育收益率为50.4%,农村大学教育收益率也高达50.6%,考虑到城市户籍附着的潜在福利收益,农村大学教育收益率可能会更高。这意味着,政府应该进一步加强对农村的教育投资,以促进更多农村居民进入城市体系,从而有利于我国经济的结构性转型。     

新一轮户籍改革的劳动力城乡再配置效应：理论机制与经验证据

在中国人口红利机会窗口逐步缩窄背景下,需要对新一轮户籍改革的劳动力城乡再配置效应进行评估。通过构建一个劳动力多元化流动决策的分析框架,阐释户籍改革影响劳动力城乡再配置的理论机制,并基于2012—2018年中国家庭追踪调查数据进行实证分析。研究发现：新一轮户籍改革显著促进了农村劳动力向城市转移,与未放开户籍管制的城市相比,放开落户限制城市持有农业户口且在农村地区就业的劳动力减少了3.4%,该效应可进一步分解为持有非农户口劳动力比重增加1.9%,流动人口比重增加1.5%;户籍改革引致的落户门槛降低和公共服务均等化,在降低迁徙成本的同时提高了迁徙收益,促进了劳动力城乡间的再配置;城市财政压力、户籍所在地的农地价值、迁徙的心理与社会融入成本以及不稳定就业均会对户籍改革的劳动力城乡再配置效应形成制约。拓展性分析表明,城市间落户政策差异引致的劳动力城乡再配置会进一步扩大特大城市与其他城市人力资本差距。因此,应进一步深化户籍制度改革,降低一线城市落户门槛,同时促进基本公共服务均等化,充分释放劳动力城乡再配置潜力。     

社会网络、风险识别能力与农村移民可持续生计——基于代际差异视角

将农村移民的风险识别能力作为中介变量,构建了"社会网络—风险识别能力—农村移民可持续生计"的理论模型。利用针对三峡库区农村移民的调研数据,研究了农村移民的社会网络对其可持续生计水平的影响以及风险识别能力的中介效应。结果显示:社会网络规模、社会网络密度、风险识别能力与三峡库区农村移民的可持续生计水平显著正相关;社会网络规模、社会网络密度和风险识别能力对两代农村移民可持续生计水平的影响存在较大的代际差异;风险识别能力在社会网络与农村移民可持续生计水平的关系中发挥中介效应。     

非正规就业对流动人口社会融合的影响研究——基于北京市调查数据的分析

本文采用干预效应模型和倾向值加权模型,在控制了就业类别的选择偏差基础上,分析了正规就业的流动人口与非正规就业的流动人口在社会融合方面的差异。结果表明,流动人口中的正规就业者和非正规就业者,在受教育水平、工作经验、职业和工作获得方式等方面存在显著差别。在控制选择偏差以后,非正规就业的流动人口的社会融合水平显著低于正规就业的流动人口。剥离户籍对就业机会、就业身份和就业保障的影响,是户籍改革的应有之义。     

Migration,self‐selection and income distributions

Self‐selection in rural–urban migration is examined using three datasets from rural and urban China in 2002. We construct a migrant sample including both migrants who converted their hukou status from rural to urban (permanent migrants) and those who did not (temporary migrants). We find a strong positive selection for permanent migrants, but the selection for temporary migrants is ambiguous. We reach these conclusions by comparing migrants' counterfactual wage densities, assuming they are paid as rural local workers, to actual wage densities of rural local workers. Our results imply that permanent migration has negative effects on rural human capital accumulation and income levels.     

The effect of rural labor migration on poverty alleviation: a village-level study in China

The construction of the new socialist countryside is being carried out in China nowadays. Although lots of successful experience has been gotten, different problems occur in various regions yet. To analyze the relationships among rural labor migration, poverty alleviation and characteristics of migrants is important in considering the effect of rural labor migration on the construction of the new socialist countryside. Available sampling and typical case study are adopted and 236 questionnaires are collected from[bur villages in northwest GuangxL China, Daxin Lixin, Longhe and Yongchang. We analyze the rural labor migration status, characteristics of migrants, remittance situation and income, household income and the ratio of remittance income to total household income. A bout 2/3 of the households have migrants in surveyed villages. And nearly half of the migration households have only one fam- ily member as migrants in the four villages. The migrants mainly comprise male and the younger, with the education level of junior middte school and higher More than half of the migrants are employed in Guangdong Province. But the characteristics of migrants in Yongchang are more diverse. The rural labor migration in the village is extremely active and extensive. And over 60% of the household with family members as migrants have remittance income. The rate in Yongchang is extremely high (80%). And the income of households with migrants getting remittance income significantly higher than their counterparts. More than half of their income comes from remittance as far as the former kind of household is concerned And in Yongchang, the rate is nearly 80%. The conclusion is that rural labor migration is popular and extensive in lots of villages. And the migration and remittance play an important role in rural household income, especially in some poor villages. For this kind of village, the rural labor migration may be some "compulsory course" in rural development. And the rural labor emigration is an essential way in poverty al-leviation. This is the first step in the construction of the new socialist countryside.     

Where did all the remittances go? Understanding the impact of remittances on consumption patterns in rural China

We focus on the impact of migrants’ remittances on consumption patterns in China. Using a large homogenous sample of rural households surveyed in 2001 and 2004, we find that remittances are spent on nonhousing consumption expenditures at the margin, virtually dollar-for-dollar, when we instrument remittances and local employed earnings using proxies of social networks. Our findings are robust to intra-household division of labour and to fixed-effect for the county in which the respondents are registered. These results imply that rural households largely take remittances as permanent income and are consistent with the prevalence of circular and repeat migration in China.     

Exports and left‐behind children: Empirical evidence from the China Migrants Dynamic Survey

The opportunity for jobs and high wages induced by exports have attracted rural laborers in China to work in the cities temporarily, and some parents must leave behind their children in rural areas, called left‐behind children (LBC). Notably, the cause of LBC has not been investigated carefully. In this study, we combine the 2010 to 2015 Chinese trade data with the data from the 2010 to 2015 China Migrants Dynamic Survey(CMDS) to identify LBC based on the young children of migrants not living with their parents in the cities, and empirically test the effects of exports on LBC. The results show that under the same income level and other circumstances, the increase in export dependency significantly increases the probability of the migrants’ young children becoming LBC. We construct an instrumental variable to manage the potential endogeneity problems and conduct many other robustness checks, and all the results are consistent. We also examine the heterogeneous effects of exports on LBC and observe that migrants with low income, low education, rural hukou (area of origin) status, and in manufacturing sectors are more vulnerable to exports.Key Words: Exports; Internal Migration; Left‐behind children     

Resettlement's impact on the domestic economy in lake restoration:case study of Poyang Lake region

The Chinese government started a lake restoration project in Poyang Lake region 10 years ago,and the expost monitor of the migrants' livelihoods was limited.This paper compares the composition difference of domestic income and domestic consumption between migration and non-migration villages in Poyang Lake region.The results show that the migrants' domestic income has increased in the last 10 years,which originated from the increasing trend of active and extensive rural labor migration,while the resettlement has not influenced the domestic income significantly.The resettlement stimulates younger farmers to work far away from home whose wages contribute nearly 80% of domestic income.The resettlement decreases their savings due to higher expenditure of daily life for those who work far away from home,and higher expenditure of food for those who stay at home,losing cultivated lands with irrigation system for vegetable.On the other hand,the increase of rural labor migration leads the migrants who stay at home to have access to more cultivated lands for rice and cotton,and the farmers also apply more fertilizer in the same cultivated land for more agriculture products.The resettlement makes most of migrants spend their savings on the improvement of their housing conditions due to not enough governmental financial support for new building.After the analysis,some factors that influence migrants' income and consumption are discussed.The paper may contribute to the building of Poyang Lake Ecological Economic Zone.     

TAXES,INCOME, AND RETIREMENT SAVINGS: DIFFERENCES BY PERMANENT AND TRANSITORY INCOME

This article examines the determinants of and benefits from saving for retirement in tax‐preferred accounts by permanent and transitory income levels. We find that higher incomes (both permanent and transitory) are associated with a greater probability to contribute and larger contributions. We also find that tax benefits for retirement savings increase strongly with income, although the increase is slightly smaller when taxpayers are ranked by their permanent (rather than current) income. In addition, we find that a large portion of the benefits from the Saver's Credit go to taxpayers who would not be eligible based on their permanent income. Finally, we find that recent tax changes (including the introduction of the Saver's Credit) significantly increased contributions among low‐income households, although the effect was centered among those with only transitorily low income. (JEL H24, H31, E21)     

Who stays,who goes,who returns?

We study the determinants of East–West migration within Germany during the period 1990–2006, using administrative data, the German Microcensus and the German Socio‐Economic Panel. We find that in addition to income prospects and employment status, two well‐known determinants of migration, psychological and social factors play an important role in determining the migration decision. Men and women move from East to West in proportionate numbers, but among individuals who lived in the East in 1989 women are more likely to migrate. The migrant body in the second wave of migration, starting in the late 1990s, is increasingly composed of young, educated people. By focusing on differences between temporary and permanent migrants, we find that older and single individuals are more likely to return East than stay permanently in the West, compared with younger and married individuals. Finally, the life satisfaction of permanent migrants increases significantly after a move, while that of temporary migrants remains essentially flat.     

农民工的社会网络与职业阶层和收入:来自深圳调查的发现

本文利用2005年"深圳外来农村流动人口调查"数据,定量研究了社会网络对农民工职业阶层和收入的影响.研究发现,求职关系网络的规模、关系构成对农民工职业阶层的提升和收入的提高有正向影响,而求职网成员的职业阶层趋同性则有负向影响.本研究表明,尽管个体因素和流动因素对农民工求职结果有重要影响,但是社会网络在中国社会转型期对农民工求职具有不可忽视的作用.