Currency interdependence and dollarization

This paper constructs a search model of currency interdependence, and uses it to examine how in dollarized economies the foreign currency reacts to various shocks to the domestic currency. Currency interdependence is generated by allowing sellers to take into account their outside option of trading with the domestic currency while bargaining with buyers holding the foreign currency. The shocks consist in movements in the domestic interest rate, domestic inflation and the domestic currency’s market power. We show that if the purchasing power of the domestic currency is low, any shock that increases its value, such as a higher domestic interest rate, translates into a depreciation of the foreign currency. However, the result is opposite when the purchasing power of the domestic currency is high. We show that when money is indivisible these shocks can drive in or out the foreign currency. When money is divisible, this currency substitution effect is more limited. We use our results to discuss the opportunity of various de-dollarization policies and show that some can be counterproductive.     

货币替代理论研究述评

货币替代是开放经济中所特有的一种货币性扰动,它会对一国的经济金融形势产生严重影响,如货币政策的独立性和有效性受到影响、政府的财政税基遭到削弱、汇率波动频繁、国际收支失衡、减缓甚至阻碍该国货币的自由兑换进程等。随着中国经济高速增长以及人民币的强烈升值预期,我国出现了人民币正在逐步替代外币美元的反向货币替代现象,同样对我国经济造成了一系列的冲击。本文首先从货币替代的定义、形成机制、经济影响、防范风险的对策等方面对国外文献进行了理论综述;然后,分析了国内学者对货币替代理论的研究,特别研究了我国在目前背景下出现的反向货币替代现象;最后在对国内外货币替代理论文献综述的基础上,对将来的研究方向进行了展望。     

Currency restrictions,government transaction policies and currency exchange

Summary. We study how currency restrictions and government transaction policies affect the values of fiat currencies in a two country, divisible good, search model. We show that these policies can generate equilibria where both currencies circulate as medium of exchange and where currency exchange occurs between citizens of different countries. Restrictions on the internal use of foreign currency can cause the domestic currency to be relatively more valuable to domestic agents while taxes on domestic currency create an incentive for home agents to hold foreign currency. We demonstrate that some policies increase prices and lower welfare while others do the reverse. Received: September 5, 2001; revised version: March 1, 2002     

Monetary and macroprudential policy with foreign currency loans

In a number of countries a substantial proportion of mortgage loans is denominated in foreign currency. In this paper we demonstrate how their presence affects economic policy and agents’ welfare. To this end we construct a small open economy model with financial frictions, where housing loans can be denominated in domestic or foreign currency. The model is calibrated for Poland - a typical small open economy with a large share of foreign currency loans (FCL). We show that the presence of FCLs negatively affects the transmission of monetary policy and deteriorates the output-inflation volatility trade-off it faces. The trade-off can be improved with macroprudential policy but the outcomes are still worse than under this same policy mix applied to an economy with domestic currency debt. We also demonstrate that a high share of FCLs is harmful for social welfare, even if financial stability considerations are not taken into account. Finally, we show that regulatory policies that discriminate against FCLs may have a negative impact on economic activity and discuss the redistributive consequences of forced currency conversion of household debt.     

Transmission of monetary policy and exchange rate shocks under foreign currency lending

This paper analyses the differences in reaction of domestic and foreign currency lending to monetary and exchange rate shocks, using a panel VAR model estimated for the three biggest Central and Eastern European countries (Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary). Our results point toward a drop in domestic currency loans and an increase of foreign currency credit in reaction to monetary policy tightening in Poland and Hungary, suggesting that the presence of foreign currency debt weakens the transmission of monetary policy. A currency depreciation shock leads to an initial decline in foreign currency lending, but also in loans denominated in domestic currency as central banks react to a weaker exchange rate by increasing the interest rates. However, after several quarters, credit in foreign currency accelerates, indicating that borrowers start using it to substitute for depressed domestic currency lending.     

Macroprudential policy and the inward transmission of monetary policy: The case of Chile,Mexico, and Russia

This paper studies whether domestic macroprudential policy may attenuate the inward transmission of monetary policy shocks from the United States to domestic bank lending growth in three emerging market economies—Chile, Mexico, and Russia. Identification relies on banks’ heterogeneous exposure to prudential policies and the fact that foreign monetary policy shocks are exogenous from the perspective of these economies. After analyzing the effects of the aggregate domestic prudential policy stance, we focus on specific prudential policies targeting mortgage and consumer loans, as well as foreign‐currency deposits. Although our overall results are mixed, we find evidence that the strength of international monetary policy spillovers varies depending on the stance of domestic macroprudential policy. In particular, a tighter reserve requirement stance over foreign‐currency deposits in Chile dampens the effect of an international monetary policy shock on domestic local‐currency lending, but reinforces that on foreign‐currency lending, whereas in Russia, it dampens the effect on both local‐currency and foreign‐currency lending, although to different degrees. Prudential policies targeting the asset side of banks’ balance sheets, such as mortgage loans or consumer credit, are found to amplify international monetary policy spillovers in some cases and attenuate it in others, depending on the country context.     

大国货币崛起的中国道路：人民币孕育成长百年历程*

经历四十余年改革开放，中国经济迅速崛起，作为主权货币的人民币逐步迈向世界货币舞台。基于此，人民币如何走上与欧美主要货币比肩的大国货币道路便引起人们的广泛关注。本文试图就此谈些看法。本文认为，若要客观准确地分析和评判人民币迈向大国货币之路，必须着眼于历史逻辑与理论逻辑的统一视角。仅从理论逻辑看，英镑美元道路似乎是人民币迈向大国货币的必然选择，但若着眼于历史逻辑，此种选择的合理性则会大打折扣。历史地看，中国货币制度长期由超大规模经济与低值货币本位加以塑造而呈现出十分独特的格局，由此决定其具有更多服务于国内经济民生的特质，这与一些欧美国家货币动辄充当对外扩张与建立世界霸权的工具形成鲜明对照。人民币制度无疑受到中国货币传统的影响，特别是经历近代以降百余年来的民族危亡与自强图存，作为该制度的肇建者，中国共产党人深知币制独立与币值稳定之重要，因此自始至终以服务国内经济民生为要而缓图国际使用，结果出现经济规模与主权货币国际化的不对称格局。最终，问题就归结为如何客观认识这种不对称格局，也就是说，对于人民币成长为大国货币而言，这种格局是“悖论”还是“特色”？本文的结论是：人民币成为大国货币是中国经济崛起的结果而非前提，因此须在基本条件上合理安排迈向大国货币的次序，特别是要审慎把握国际使用的节奏，走出大国货币成长的中国道路。     

Foreign currency debt, risk premia and macroeconomic volatility

This paper studies the relationships between foreign currency debt, macroeconomic volatility, and risk premia in a model of a small open emerging market economy. The external value of the local currency is counter-cyclical, so that foreign currency debt requires larger repayments than local currency debt in bad states of nature. The level of foreign currency-denominated debts, therefore, affects the volatility of aggregate demand and by extension of the exchange rate. Exchange rate volatility is in turn an important determinant of the risk premium on local currency debt. Finally, this risk premium is a major factor in the choice of local versus foreign currency for emerging market borrowers. The mutual endogeneity of foreign currency debt, risk premia, and macroeconomic volatility creates important feedback effects in the economy: small increases in international risk aversion may entail large amplification effects on macroeconomic volatility since domestic borrowers substitute towards cheaper but riskier foreign currency debt finance.     

Currency substitution,inflation, and welfare

Currency substitution affects the mapping between social welfare and inflation by altering the underlying money demand function and influencing interest rates. In order to explore the essence of this effect, I build a model with working capital under which foreign currency is substituted with the less liquid components of domestic money. The framework closely mimics the actual pattern of currency substitution across varying rates of inflation and enables the study of an additional channel that works through the impact of currency substitution on interest rates. It is found that there is a threshold inflation rate, which turns out to be 44% under baseline calibration, below which currency substitution decreases welfare and vice versa. A practical implication is that, at inflation rates lower (greater) than the threshold, the potential welfare gains from disinflation to a near-zero inflation rate are higher (lower) if there is currency substitution than otherwise.     

Currency devaluations,aggregate demand,and debt dynamics in economies with foreign currency liabilities

The article uses a post Kaleckian model to analyze how currency devaluations affect aggregate demand and capital accumulation in an economy with foreign currency liabilities in the short-run. In benchmark post Kaleckian open economy models, currency devaluations have two effects. First, they change international price competitiveness and thus affect net exports. Second, devaluations change income distribution and thereby affect consumption and investment demand. The overall effect on aggregate demand and investment is ambiguous and depends on parameter values. Existing models, however, disregard balance sheet effects that arise from foreign currency-denominated external debt. The article develops a novel post Kaleckian open economy model that introduces foreign currency-denominated external debt and balance sheet effects to examine the demand-effects of devaluations. Furthermore, the article models the dynamics of external and domestic corporate debt. It discusses how an economy may end up in a vicious cycle of foreign-currency indebtedness and derives the conditions under which indebtedness becomes stable or unstable. It shows that the existence of foreign currency-denominated debt means that contractionary devaluations are more likely, and that foreign interest rate hikes, and high illiquidity and risk premia compromise debt sustainability. Devaluations only stabilize debt ratios if they succeed in boosting domestic capital accumulation.     

Government Bonds in Domestic and Foreign Currency: the Role of Institutional and Macroeconomic Factors*

In contrast to some recent research, this paper finds that institutional and macroeconomic factors are related to the depth and currency composition of government bond markets. Using panel data for developed and emerging economies, we find several factors to be systematically associated with bond markets. Aside from economic size (already shown to affect the currency composition), this paper shows that investor bases matter. Economies with deeper domestic financial systems (measured by bank deposits and stock market capitalization) have larger domestic currency bond markets and issue less foreign currency debt, whereas foreign investor demand is positively related to the size and share of foreign currency bonds. Moreover, less flexible exchange rate regimes are associated with more foreign currency issuance. Other relevant variables include inflation, fiscal burden, legal origin, and capital account openness.     

Currency Options and Export-Flexible Firms

This paper examines the production and hedging decisions of a globally competitive firm under exchange rate uncertainty. The firm is risk averse and possesses export flexibility in that it can distribute its output to either the domestic market or a foreign market after observing the realized spot exchange rate. To hedge against its exchange rate risk exposure, the firm can trade fairly priced currency call options of an arbitrary strike price. We show that both the separation and the full‐hedging results hold if the strike price of the currency call options is set equal to the ratio of the domestic and foreign selling prices. Otherwise, neither result holds. Specifically, we show that the optimal level of output is always less than that of an otherwise identical firm that is risk neutral. Furthermore, an under‐hedge (over‐hedge) is optimal whenever the strike price of the currency call options is below (above) the ratio of the domestic and foreign selling prices.     

The transactions demand for money in the presence of currency substitution: evidence from Vietnam

Currency substitution – the use of foreign money to finance transactions between domestic residents – is widespread in low income and transition economies. Traditionally, however, empirical models of the demand for money tend to concentrate on the portfolio motive for holding foreign currency, while maintaining the assumption that the income elasticity of demand for domestic money is invariant to the degree of currency substitution. A simple re-specification of the demand for money is offered which more accurately reflects the process of currency substitution by allowing for a variable income elasticity of demand for domestic money. This specification is estimated for Vietnam in the 1990s. Using a standard cointegration framework evidence is found for currency substitution only in the long-run but well-defined wealth effects operating in the short-run.     

Substitution,Income, and Intertemporal Effects In Currency-Substitution Models*

Empirical studies which aim to determine the extent of international currency substitution typically focus on the coefficient associated with the anticipated rate of depreciation of the domestic currency or on the foreign interest rate in the domestic money demand equation. an intertemporal optimizing model is used to obtain a money demand function which shows that the anticipated exchange-rate change and the foreign interest rate capture an income effect and an intertemporal income or substitution effect. Using these theoretical results, the findings from empirical studies are examined to show circumstances in which international currency substitutability may have been overstated or understated.     

The J-Curve

If a country with a balance of payments problem, that is, insufficient foreign exchange receipts to meet foreign exchange requirements, seeks to remedy the situation by currency devaluation, things may get worse before they get better. This so-called J-curve effect occurs if the domestic-currency prices of exports are sticky, whether because they are cost based or subject to longer term contracts, so that export prices in foreign currency fall. Until favourable volume effects outweigh the unfavourable price effect, the balance of payments deteriorates. Such a J-curve effect should be distinguished both from the longer term erosion of the beneficial effects of devaluation as domestic costs and the prices of non-tradables rise and from the apparent J-curve due to the ‘valuation effect’. If the current account is in deficit before devaluation, as will usually be the case, devaluation will widen the deficit in domestic currency because domestic-currency imports rise by a larger amount than exports. This is a pure valuation effect, of no significance for external balance. But it is liable to lead to unduly pessimistic judgements about the effectiveness of devaluation. In Australia during 1985–86, the current account deficit increased by $A3.5 billion, despite substantial depreciation of the $A. The main reason was a sharp deterioration in the terms of trade which is estimated to have worsened the current account by $A4.25 billion. Most of this was exogenous, though J-curve effects may have made a contribution. In addition, the valuation effect contributed a further, illusory, widening of the deficit, valued in domestic currency, by over $A1 billion. To avoid misleading inferences from the valuation effect, it is suggested that the balance of payments should, if possible, be presented in foreign currency.     

Macroeconomic policy in an output-expenditure model

This paper proposes an alternative framework for examining the international macroeconomic impact of domestic monetary and fiscal policies and focuses on the distinction between national spending and national production and the reactive behavior of foreign investors to changing external account balances. It demonstrates that under a floating exchange rate regime, monetary and fiscal policies can affect aggregate expenditure and output quite differently, with important implications for the behavior of the exchange rate, the current account balance, and national income in the short run, as well as the economy's price level in the long run. In particular, this paper predicts that expansionary monetary and fiscal policies tend to depreciate the currency and only temporarily raise gross domestic product and the current account surplus, although permanently raise the domestic price level.This is a revised version of a paper presented at the Forty-Ninth International Atlantic Economic Conference, March 14–21, 2000, Munich, Germany.     

The demand for money and the real exchange rate misalignments in emerging European countries: A nonlinear approach

This paper investigates the extent to which domestic and foreign money balances in emerging European countries are influenced by foreign exchange considerations. A well-specified and stable relationship between real money demand and the exchange rate can be perceived as an important part of a successful monetary policy. This study examines the long-run determinants of real exchange rates (RERs) associated with the behavioral equilibrium exchange rate (BEER) approach and identifies currency misalignments in these countries. The misalignment is later used to test the nonlinear behavior of the demand for money. The results indicate that the RER misalignments have a significant impact on domestic money demand. When the currencies are overvalued, there is a reduction in domestic money demand, and when they are undervalued, there is an increase in domestic money demand. Furthermore, it can be concluded that overvaluation causes an increase in foreign money demand indicating a shift of preference from domestic to foreign currency.     

Export Flexibility And Currency Hedging*

This article studies the behavior of an export‐flexible firm under exchange rate uncertainty. We show that the separation theorem holds if selling exclusively in the domestic market is suboptimal even under the most unfavorable spot exchange rate. Otherwise, the firm's optimal output depends on its preferences and on the underlying uncertainty. We further show that the full‐hedging theorem holds only when the firm always finds it optimal to sell its entire output in the foreign market. Otherwise, export flexibility introduces a convexity into the firm's foreign exchange risk exposure, which calls for the use of currency options for hedging purposes.     

The Dynamic Effect of Devaluation on the Balance of Payments of a Small Debt-Ridden Open Economy*

This paper derives a precise necessary and sufficient condition for devaluation to eventually improve the balance of payments in domestic currency, using assumptions more appropriate for a small open economy than those of Marshall-Lerner. It will be shown that, following devaluation, the balance of payments deteriorates over a short period before it gradually improves– the so-called J-curve effect The duration of this short period will be shown to depend on the magnitude of trade elasticities, lag-coefficients, unhedged foreign debt denominated in foreign currency, interest rate and current account deficit     

Multilateral currency substitution and capital flows as sources of instability in the soe demand for money function — A case study

Using monthly data for Ireland we test the hypothesis that the combined effects of currency substitution and capital mobility renders the demand for money function subject to instability over time. The empirical evidence supports the view that both “the” expected exchange rate change, giving rise to currency substitution, and the latter as a component, along with “the” foreign interest rate, of the gross yield on foreign currency-denominated assets, giving rise to capital mobility, are important determinants of the domestic demand for money. Their inclusion as arguments yields a money demand function which is more stable than if they are (incorrectly) excluded.