The influence of job characteristics and self‐directed learning orientation on workplace learning

Given the increasing importance of learning at work, we set out to examine the factors which influence workplace learning behaviour. The study investigated the influence of the job characteristics from Karasek's Job Demand Control Support model and the personal characteristic self‐directed learning orientation on workplace learning. A total of 837 workers, aged between 18 and 65, from different sectors and with different educational levels completed a paper questionnaire. Analysis revealed that job demands and self‐directed learning orientation constitute significant and positive predictors of workplace learning behaviour. The study can help organizations to create job structures that promote workplace learning.     

Rethinking UK small employers' skills policies and the role of workplace learning

Small business employers in the UK are widely perceived as adopting a reactive, ad hoc approach to employee skill formation. Employer reliance on workplace learning is often treated, explicitly or implicitly, as evidence of such an approach. Small employers' approaches to skill creation are investigated using data from two employer samples. Three main conclusions challenging these arguments are presented. First, small employers' skills policies are highly diverse: strategic, tactical and restrictive policies are distinguished. Second, employers perceive particular benefits in enabling workplace learning; simplistic views that a reliance on workplace learning necessarily constitutes an inferior last resort for those employers unable to provide access to external training are rejected. Third, enabling workplace learning is important to strategic employers, as well as to those attaching a lower value to skills. For some employers, the workplace is the primary source of new knowledge and skills because they are unavailable elsewhere. The prevalence, diversity and significance of workplace learning in small businesses require a reappraisal of UK small employers' skills policies. The implications for research, practice and policy are discussed.     

How identification facilitates effective learning: the evaluation of generic versus localized professionalization training

Worldwide, organizations are keen to ensure that they achieve a performance return from the large investment they make in employee training. This study examines the way in which workgroup identification facilitates trainees’ motivation to transfer learning into workplace performance. A 2 × 2 longitudinal study evaluated the effects of a new generic professionalization training program (NGP) – which tapped into distal work identities, and a standard local professionalization program (SLP) – which spoke more to localized work identities, on participant's motivation to transfer their learning to the workplace. The study found that, compared to participants on the SLP (n = 31), participants on the NGP (n = 35) indicated a reduction in 4 measures (perceived utility of training; workplace participation; relatedness and workplace identification). The authors draw on the social identity approach to illustrate how a reduction in these variables is indicative of a reduction in motivation to transfer learning to the workplace. In short, training which does not speak to meaningful localized identities results in reduced motivation to transfer compared to training that does speak to those identities. More broadly, the study demonstrates the capacity of the social identity approach to meet the increasing demands of training researchers for a comprehensive, multi‐dimensional, theoretical framework through which to understand the interplay of trainee and contextual factors that contribute to effective learning and performance in the workplace.     

The impact of organisational structure and practices on learning in the workplace

The main thrust of the research effort into workplace learning has been to identify the characteristics of workplace learning as experienced by the learner. The impact of the wider organisational process in which that learning is embedded have been played down. This paper, building on the work of Koike and Darrah, uses research conducted in a major multinational corporation (MNC) in South‐East Asia, to explore the impact of the wider organisational structures on the process of learning. The model it develops not only shows how these processes impact on workplace learning but also helps explain why workers acquire different levels of skill.     

Formal and informal learning in the workplace: a research review

The radical economic, social and cultural changes experienced by the labour market within recent decades have helped to highlight the central role played by the learning process in individual career development and organizational success. In such fast‐moving working contexts, skills and competencies rapidly become outdated and need to be continuously implemented and empowered as a strategic factor for global competitiveness. Traditional models of learning both inside and outside of the workplace have become unable to explain the complexity of such a process, weaving between and overlapping formal and informal components. Starting with this premise, the aim of the present paper was to analyse the role of knowledge and experience as important learning frames, which allow the acquisition and development of competencies in the workplace. A human resource development perspective was adopted, aimed at reconciling both the organizational and individual stances implied in the process. The methodology of achieving this was to review the most recent literature on workplace learning, with a special focus on its formal and informal dimensions.     

The Personal Development Plan Practice Questionnaire: the development and validation of an instrument to assess the employee's perception of personal development plan practice

Confronted with the speed of technological advancements and increasing global competition, organizations have come to realize that their employees' continuous learning drives business success. A popular tool to support and enhance continuous learning is the personal development plan (PDP). Despite its popularity, empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the PDP is scarce. To date, most of the research on the practice of the PDP is conducted within educational (students) and health (general practitioners) settings and not within business environments. Moreover, research methodology is restricted to qualitative methods and survey research is rare. For that reason, we developed and validated a questionnaire to assess PDP practice. To develop the questionnaire, we relied on literature on portfolio assessment in the educational context and the workplace (health and education); to validate it, we collected data in three independent organizations. To assess the factor structure of the questionnaire, exploratory principal component factor analyses with direct oblimin rotation were conducted on data sets from two organizations. Factor reliability was computed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The principal component analysis resulted in a 35‐item questionnaire containing five factors each with high internal validity. Cronbach's alphas ranged between 0.63 and 0.91. Next, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on an independent sample of 287 employees, working in a third organization. The results from this analysis were used to further refine the instrument. The present instrument provides a reliable and valid measure of the employee's perception of the PDP practice in the workplace, consisting of four scales and 19 items.     

Self‐regulated learning in the workplace: strategies and factors in the attainment of learning goals

The research reported here is an exploratory qualitative study aimed at identifying professionals' self‐regulatory strategies underpinning the planning and attainment of learning goals in the workplace and showing how a number of organizational factors affect these strategies. The rationale for the study is that existing research tells us little about how professionals regulate their learning, largely because much of the literature on the self‐regulation of learning has been conducted with pupils and students in schools and universities rather than with professionals. Data were obtained through 29 semi‐structured interviews with professional employees in a company in the energy sector – including engineers, scientists and managers of various kinds – in 12 countries. Findings suggest that self‐regulatory learning practices in, from and for work are iterative and fluid rather than delineated into discrete stages as suggested by phase models of self‐regulation. There was little deliberate, systematic self‐reflection on learning in the workplaces studied. Learning goals were driven by short‐term work tasks and individuals' longer term development needs. Professionals draw extensively upon supervisors, mentors and colleagues when planning and attaining their learning goals. Formation of learning goals was constrained by individuals' perceptions of their career development potential and of how their progression potential is viewed by the organization in which they work.     

Measuring self‐regulated learning in the workplace

In knowledge‐intensive industries, the workplace has become a key locus of learning. To perform effectively, knowledge workers must be able to take responsibility for their own developmental needs, and in particular, to regulate their own learning. This paper describes the construction and validation of an instrument (the Self‐Regulated Learning at Work Questionnaire) designed to provide a measure of self‐regulated learning (SRL) behaviour in the workplace. The instrument has been validated through a pilot study with a cohort of 170 knowledge workers from the finance industry. Results indicate that the five scales of the instrument are reliable and valid, testing a broad range of sub‐processes of SRL. The instrument can be used to identify knowledge workers who demonstrate different levels of SRL in workplace contexts for further exploration through qualitative studies and could also provide the basis of professional development tools designed to explore opportunities for self‐regulation of learning in the workplace.     

Justice,sexual harassment,and the reasonable victim standard

In determining when sexual behavior in the workplace creates a hostile working environment, some courts have asked, ‘Would a reasonableperson view this as a hostile environment?’ Two recent court decisions, recognizing male-female differences in the perception of social sexual behavior at work, modified this standard to ask, “Would a reasonablevictim view this as a hostile environment?” As yet, there is no consensus in the legal community regarding which of these standards is just. We propose that moral theory provides the framework from which business people can construct just procedures regarding sexually hostile environments. We argue that the natural duty of mutual respect of persons and the natural duty not to harm the innocent compels business people to identify sexually hostile work environments from the perspective of the reasonable victim, usually from the woman's perspective. Within the context of this moral framework, a training approach designed to reduce the incidence of sexually harassing behaviors in the workplace is proposed.     

Employability enhancement through formal and informal learning: an empirical study among Dutch non‐academic university staff members

Although learning is generally perceived as a way to improve employees' current job performance, so far, no research has been conducted to explore the possible relationships between formal and informal learning, on the one hand, and employability, on the other. Though contemporary views stress the importance of the job as a powerful learning site, considerable research evidence underpinning these views is lacking. This paper goes into the impact of formal and informal learning upon employability. The influence of employee characteristics and organizational factors is also taken into account. An e‐questionnaire was used to collect data among 215 Dutch non‐academic university staff members. Our findings emphasize the necessity of Human Resource Development strategies that encompass a mix of formal and informal learning opportunities. In particular, participation in networks appears to be an important predictor for employability. With the outcomes of this study, we aim to contribute to the further development of theoretical insights regarding employability enhancement through learning possibilities embedded in the workplace. It seems that strategies that focus exclusively on enhancing informal on‐the‐job learning should not be encouraged. Our study is limited to one context and further research is required to investigate the generalizability of the findings to other occupations and/or countries.     

The impact of workplace support and identity on training transfer: a case study of drug and alcohol safety training in Australia

Previous research has indicated that the transfer climate of work organisations is an important factor in determining the degree to which knowledge, skills and abilities gained in training transfer to the workplace. In particular, workplace social support from supervisors and coworkers is consistently cited as an important factor that can facilitate or inhibit training transfer. However, research evidence regarding the impact of workplace social support on training transfer is mixed. In order to address this issue a study was conducted to identify under what conditions workplace social support impacts on training transfer. This study evaluated a workplace drug and alcohol training programme * * The training evaluated in this study is part of the Building Trades Group Drug and Alcohol Programme. This is a national drug and alcohol programme for the Australian Building and Construction Industry. For more information on this programme, visit: http//www.btgda.org.au .
to examine the impact of workplace social support and identification with workplace groups on training transfer. Results indicated that the influence of workplace social support on training transfer was moderated by the degree to which trainees identified with workplace groups that provided this support. This study supports the proposition that in order to fully understand training transfer, and to design effective training programmes, training research and practice needs to focus on both the personal and situational factors that may interact to influence learning and transfer.     

Supporting worklife learning at work to sustain employability

The concept of employability extends beyond initial occupational preparation into the ability to remain employable as, inevitably, occupational capacities and workplace requirements change frequently across working lives. Hence, the need to continually learn to remain occupationally current and respond to changing workplace requirements becomes paramount. The evidence suggests that much of that learning arises through individual efforts and the support of co-workers through work activities. So, there is a need to understand how that learning can be supported to sustain employability across lengthening working lives. Drawing on an Australian study, reported here are perspectives from managers and workers in diverse workplaces about current modes of continuing education and training and about how workers are assisted with their learning to meet personal needs and qthose of employers. Employers want an occupationally current workforce that can meet specific workplace needs; workers want the capacities to remain employable, which may extend to advancing their careers elsewhere. The data indicate differences in perceptions about what is being provided, how frequently the provisions are used, and the worth of its certification. Whilst the findings indicate shared concerns about the importance of learning, there were clear differences in views about the models and processes used to support that learning. Across both sets of informants can be seen distinctions between ‘training solutions’ and ‘learning solutions’. A more nuanced analysis suggests that the training solution is appropriate and effective at some point in workers' worklife trajectories but in other circumstances, learning through practice is proposed as being more efficacious.     

Young managers' interpersonal stress and its relationship to management development practices: an exploratory study

This exploratory study investigates whether there is a relationship between young managers' interpersonal stress and various management development practices. In recent years, practitioners and researchers have focused on stress studies and related practices in the workplace. However, stress encountered by young managers has received less attention. We examine possible sources of young managers' interpersonal stress and develop a scale through exploratory factor analysis. Participants are less than 35 years old, mainly from the financial, high‐tech and service industries in Taiwan. Organizational managerial development practices are discussed to understand their relevance to young managers' interpersonal stress. The results suggest that the more opportunities young managers have to make decisions, the more their opinions will differ from those of their middle‐aged fellow managers and senior subordinates. However, organizations with formal assessment may lessen disagreements with middle‐aged fellow managers. Future studies regarding young managers' interpersonal stress can be carried out using this scale and can explore whether other, specific organizational management development practices are related to lower stress levels among young managers.     

Designing and Delivering Business Ethics Teaching and Learning

The recent corporate scandals in the United States have caused a renewed interest and focus on teaching business ethics. Business schools and their faculties are reexamining the teaching of business ethics and are reassessing their responsibilities to produce honest and truthful managers who live lives of integrity and ethical accountability. The authors recognize that no agreement exists among business schools and their faculties regarding what should be the content and pedagogy of a course in business ethics. However, the authors hold that regardless of one’s biases regarding the content and pedagogy, the effective teaching of business ethics requires that the instructor in designing and delivering a business ethics course needs to focus particular attention on four principal questions: (1) what are the objectives or targeted learning outcomes of the course? (2) what kind of learning environment should be created? (3) what learning processes need to be employed to achieve the goals? and (4) what are the roles of the participants in the learning experience? The answers to these questions provide the foundations for any business ethics course. The answers are major determinants of the impact of a business ethics course on the thinking of students and the views on the ethical and professional accountabilities and responsibilities of managers in the workplace.     

Employer liability for telecommuting employees

Telecommuting is a work arrangement in which an employee regularly works at a site other than the employer's place of business—often the employee's home or a so-called telework center. Telecommuting may increase employees' job flexibility, retention, productivity, and motivation. However, telecommuting also carries distinct implications for legal liability. Among the issues are safety, adherence to disability-access laws, and wage and hour regulations. For instance, employers face issues connected with workplace safety, because they can be held accountable for accidents at a telecommuter's home office (even though the employer does not manage the premises). Telecommuting may come to be seen as a “reasonable accommodation” under the Americans with Disabilities Act, although few cases have been decided regarding this contention. Moreover, the simple fact that an employee is setting her own hours does not exempt the employer from the wage and hour provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act. Workers must either fit that law's specific exemptions from hourly and overtime pay or else keep careful track of their hours. Perhaps the most important means of limiting problems arising from telecommuting is to implement a firm, company-wide policy (rather than apply ad hoc criteria), and to make certain that both job duties and the worker personally are suited to the minimal supervision and self-direction involved in telecommuting.     

The dietary and health behaviour of young people aged 18–25 years living independently or in the family home in Liverpool,UK

An individual's dietary habits are largely developed during childhood and adolescence, and are likely to be determined by both nature (the development of sensory perceptions) and nurture (parental influence, and later on the influence of peers). However, diet is likely to evolve throughout the life cycle as circumstances change and new influences are introduced to an individual's lifestyle. An example of this is the changes in diet that occur as a result of the transition young people make away from the family home into independent living. Leaving behind the meals provided and cooked by parents/guardians and learning how to shop on a budget and prepare and cook for themselves may result in the adoption of poor eating habits, which is likely to have a detrimental effect on health. Leaving behind the restrictions of parental control may also result in the adoption of unhealthy lifestyle practices such as smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. This study therefore seeks to investigate the effect of leaving home on a young person's diet and lifestyle. Health behaviour and food intake was assessed by questionnaire. Findings suggest that a young person's diet may change after leaving home, but these changes are not necessarily negative. More negative health behaviour was observed in young people living independently.     

Learning transfer: the views of practitioners in Ireland

Considerable expenditure on human resource development (HRD) has not necessarily resulted in a significant impact on organizational performance, and research suggests that the failure to transfer learning may be an important explanation. The search for factors affecting transfer has been extensive, as shown in Grossman and Salas's article in this issue, but, as they also show, more research is needed. The purpose of the present study is to ascertain the views of HRD practitioners (in Ireland) about the factors that they believe are relevant to the transfer of learning in the workplace. The aim is to discover whether practitioners have identified potential factors which researchers have not explored or not explored sufficiently. This group of practitioners was chosen because of the considerable control they wield over significant tranches of organizational resources. The method first involved engagement with 28 senior HRD practitioners in a workshop setting to create a transfer inventory based on their expert opinion. The initial inventory was then responded to online by a group of 314 practitioners indicating the relevance of the items to the question of transfer. Factor analysis was used to achieve parsimony among items, and 21 potential factors were identified. This study focused on the 15 factors adjudged by practitioners to be most relevant. It is concluded that trainer effectiveness, organizational linkage and training event climate, all deemed relevant by practitioners, may justify further research.     

Employer Awareness,Attitudes, and Referral Practices Regarding Behavioral Problems in the Workplace

A survey is undertaken of organizations of differing sizes and representing a cross-section of industries to assess employ- ers' awareness, attitudes, and referral practices regarding behavioral (emotional and substance abuse) problems in the workplace. Impli- cations and future challenges, for Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) are discussed.     

“妒能”如何变成“赋能”：职场妒忌对工作绩效的影响

职场妒忌是工作中非常普遍的现象，以往研究主要聚焦在职场妒忌的“阴暗面”，却未能对其积极效应给予足够的关注。基于自我一致性理论，并结合Arnold的行动序列作为整体逻辑，探讨了职场妒忌与工作绩效的内在作用机制。研究结果表明：职场妒忌对工作绩效具有显著的正向影响；内在动机与观察性学习分别在职场妒忌对工作绩效的影响中起部分中介作用；内在动机与观察性学习在职场妒忌与工作绩效之间存在链式的中介作用；职场友谊对“职场妒忌内在动机观察性学习工作绩效”这一链式中介路径起调节作用，即职场友谊越高，职场妒忌对内在动机的正向作用越强，内在动机与观察性学习在职场妒忌与工作绩效之间的链式中介作用越强。     

The Evolution and Challenges of the Concept of Organizational Virtuousness in Positive Organizational Scholarship

This study considers the potential for influencing business students to become ethical managers by directing their undergraduate learning environment. In particular, the relationship between business students’ academic cheating, as a predictor of workplace ethical behavior, and their approaches to learning is explored. The three approaches to learning identified from the students’ approaches to learning literature are deep approach, represented by an intrinsic interest in and a desire to understand the subject, surface approach, characterized by rote learning and memorization without understanding, and strategic approach, associated with competitive students whose motivation is the achievement of good grades by adopting either a surface or deep approach. Consistent with the hypothesized theoretical model, structural equation modeling revealed that the surface approach is associated with higher levels of cheating, while the deep approach is related to lower levels. The strategic approach was also associated with less cheating and had a statistically stronger influence than the deep approach. Further, a significantly positive relationship reported between deep and strategic approaches suggests that cheating is reduced when deep and strategic approaches are paired. These findings suggest that future managers and business executives can be influenced to behave more ethically in the workplace by directing their learning approaches. It is hoped that the evidence presented may encourage those involved in the design of business programs to implement educational strategies which optimize students’ approaches to learning towards deep and strategic characteristics, thereby equipping tomorrow’s managers and business executives with skills to recognize and respond appropriately to workplace ethical dilemmas.