Carbon policy and the structure of global trade

Alternative perspectives on the structure of international trade have important implications for the evaluation of climate policy. In this paper, we assess climate policy in the context of three important alternative trade formulations. First is a Heckscher‐Ohlin model based on trade in homogeneous products, which establishes the traditional neoclassical view on comparative advantage. Second is an Armington model based on regionally differentiated goods, which is a popular specification for numerical simulations of trade policy. Third is a Melitz model based on monopolistic competition and firm heterogeneity. This heterogeneous‐firms framework is adopted in many contemporary theoretic and empirical investigations in international trade. As we show in this paper, the three alternative trade formulations have important implications for the assessment of climate policy with respect to competitive effects for energy‐intensive production (and hence carbon leakage) as well as the transmission of policy burdens across countries.     

General equilibrium trade modelling with Canada–US transportation costs

Transportation costs are an important topic in international trade, but seldom have researchers paid attention to general equilibrium trade modelling with transportation costs and explored their relevant effects. This paper uses numerical general equilibrium trade model structures to simulate the impacts of transportation costs on welfare and trade for a Canada–US country pair case. We compare two groups of model structures: Armington assumption models and homogeneous goods models. Within these two groups of models, we also compare balanced trade structures to trade imbalance structures and production function transportation costs to iceberg transportation costs. Armington goods models generate more absolute welfare gains from transportation cost elimination than homogeneous goods models. Welfare gains under balanced trade structures are larger in production function transportation cost scenarios than in iceberg transportation cost scenarios, but under trade imbalance structures, welfare gains are greater under iceberg transportation cost scenarios. Canada's welfare gains in the iceberg transportation cost scenario are significantly larger than gains in the production function transportation cost scenario. On trade effects, homogeneous goods models generate more export and import gains, balanced trade structures have more trade variations, and iceberg transportation costs generate more trade effects.     

我国对东盟的出口贸易结构及其变迁——基于产品技术附加值分布的贸易结构分析法和变系数面板数据模型的动态分析

本文首先基于关志雄(2002)和Lall等(2006)提出的基于产品技术附加值分布的贸易结构分析法,在SITC三位数水平下考察了2001—2005年我国对东盟各国出口贸易结构及其变迁,研究结果显示:我国对东盟十国的出口贸易结构有恶化的趋势。因而,为分析影响这一结构变迁的主要因素,本文采用引力模型对可能影响这一贸易结构变迁的各种因素进行了显著性分析,结论显示:总体而言,东盟各国的经济规模对我国对其出口贸易结构变迁具有显著影响,在此基础上,基于变系数面板数据模型深入分析了东盟各国经济规模对我国对东盟各国出口贸易结构变迁的综合影响。最后,针对我国的对外经贸和宏观经济发展现状,提出了优化我国对东盟出口贸易结构的相应对策建议。     

Exchange Rate Volatility and Intra‐Asia Trade: Evidence by Type of Goods

This paper examines the impact of intra‐Asia exchange rate volatility on intra‐Asia trade in primary goods, intermediate goods, equipment goods and consumption goods from 1980 to 2009. For Asia, the evidence shows that as intraregional exchange rate volatility increases, intraregional exports in these goods fall. This adverse impact is even more pronounced in the subregion of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)+5 comprising ASEAN member countries plus the People's Republic of China; Hong Kong, China; Japan; the Republic of Korea; and Taipei, China; and especially among intermediate and equipment exports. Again, the impact magnifies in an even smaller subgroup excluding the smaller ASEAN economies. These results underline the significant impact of exchange rate volatility on the region's production networks. For South Asia, however, exchange rate volatility appears to have a positive impact on exports. Still, caution is warranted given that South Asian economies trade relatively little with each other.     

中国与东盟创意商品贸易的互补性 与竞争性研究

本文运用RCA指数、贸易互补性指数和贸易相似度指数等工具分析了中国与东盟主要国家创意商品贸易的互补性与竞争性,结果表明,中国与东盟的创意商品贸易互补性与竞争性并存。就互补性而言,中国与新加坡创意商品贸易存在较强的互补性,中国和其他东盟主要国家在工艺品和新媒体上互补性较大。就竞争性而言,中国与新加坡创意商品贸易的竞争性相对较小,中国与马来西亚、泰国、越南在世界创意商品市场上的竞争较激烈。因此,中国要充分利用与东盟创意商品贸易的互补性,增加彼此产品的差异性,促进双方创意产品贸易的发展。     

东盟贸易发展动态(1990～2007)：全球性和区域性

文章集中研究1990～2007年东盟国家贸易发展问题,得出自由化背景下东盟贸易发展的全球性和区域性特征.通过引入和建立全球层面的出口依存度、贸易贡献度和贸易自由度,区域层面的区域内贸易集中度、贸易地区倾向性和贸易伙伴排名等六个指标,全面研究东盟贸易发展问题,并对中国对东盟发展经贸关系提了几点看法.     

中国与东盟贸易条件变化和波动情况的经验分析

依据在联合国统计司Comtrade数据库,对中国与东盟贸易条件的变化情况和波动情况进行经验分析,结果发现：在1987～2006年期间,中国与东盟的整体贸易条件和初级产品贸易条件都有一定程度的改善,而制成品贸易条件则出现了一定程度的恶化：中国与东盟初级产品进出口贸易发展的不稳定、资源型制成品进出口贸易发展的不平衡以及初级产品贸易条件大的波动对中国与东盟整体贸易条件的波动起了主导作用。     

Modelling the impact of non-tariff measures on supply chains in ASEAN

This paper explores the impact of reducing non-tariff measures (NTMs) in major ASEAN countries. New econometric estimates of the impact of different types of NTMs are used in a global supply chain model to separately model the effects on intermediate products and those sold to final consumers. We also distinguish between whether the NTM cost burden is directed at exporters or importers. This paper makes important advances in modelling the heterogeneity of NTMs, offering much richer policy analysis of the impact of NTMs on supply chains in the Asia-Pacific region than has previously been possible. We illustrate the benefits, both to the major ASEAN countries and to their trading partners, from the partial liberalisation by ASEAN countries of their most trade distorting types of NTMs. Such liberalisation increases the GDP and welfare of all countries, with the effect particularly pronounced for the major ASEAN countries themselves, especially Vietnam and the Philippines. As trade in plant products and animal products is particularly affected by NTMs, these sectors show the largest expansion of trade.     

The Relationship between Political Tensions,Trade and Capital Flows in ASEAN Plus Three

We estimate the effects of political tension on trade and capital flows in ASEAN Plus Three countries in the framework of a gravity model. We quantify political tension through text‐parsing software reading daily Reuters’ articles from 1990 to 2013 and exclude Brunei and Laos due to sparsity of news coverage. Regarding bilateral trade, we find that political conflict, measured by negative reports in Reuters’ articles, seems to only affect bilateral trade between countries that are not both members of the World Trade Organization (WTO). For these countries, a 1 per cent rise in the tension score results in a 0.05 per cent decline in trade. There is weaker evidence that improvement in bilateral relationship, measured by positive reports in Reuters’ articles, is associated with more trade. As for capital flows, while long‐term capital flows, measured by foreign direct investment, appear to be unaffected by short‐term tensions, both a non‐democratic government and a history of war negatively affect FDI.     

In Search of Optimised Regional Trade Agreements and Applications to East Asia

We quantitatively analyse the trade effects of enhanced trade facilitation with extended gravity equations. Our findings confirm that RTAs comprised of countries equipped with better trade facilitation are more likely to be trade‐creating, less likely to be trade‐diverting, and are thus more likely to lead the world economy toward global free trade. We also find that (i) the traditional gains from shallow integration through eliminating tariff barriers will be greater for South‐South RTAs in East Asia such as an ASEAN‐China RTA, provided that the tariff‐reducing schedule is strictly fulfilled, (ii) the gains from deeper integration through enhancing trade facilitation will be greater for North‐North RTAs in East Asia such as a Japan‐Korea RTA, and (iii) the gains from a combined trade liberalisation strategy through tariff reductions and enhanced trade facilitation will be greater for North‐South RTAs in East Asia such as a China‐Korea and an ASEAN+3 RTA.     

中国与东盟贸易的决定因素分析

本文以中国与东盟间的双边贸易为研究对象,利用贸易引力模型分析中国与东盟之间贸易的决定因素。中国的GDP、东盟国家国的GDP和人均GDP对于中国-东盟贸易具有显著的促进作用,而中国的人均GDP和距离对于中国-东盟的贸易具有阻碍作用。     

Sine-Danish Cooperation on Renewable Energy Development

Sino-Danish collaboration on renewable energy is growing rapidly. Denmark and China are both focusing on further use of renewable energy in the future, and today a new Sino- Danish programme saw the light of day.     

Market Structure and Market Access

We explore an issue at the nexus of domestic competition policy and international trade, the interaction between goods trade and market power in domestic trade and distribution sectors. We examine the effect of variations in conditions of domestic competition in services on trade volumes in goods in the cases of both linear and nonlinear import demand, including standard form CES‐based gravity models of bilateral trade flows. Theory suggests a set of linkages between service‐sector pricing and goods trade supported by econometrics involving imports of 22 OECD countries vis‐a‐vis 69 exporters. Competition in distribution services affects the volume of trade in goods. Additionally, because of interaction between tariffs and pricing, the market structure of the domestic service sector becomes increasingly important as tariffs are reduced. Indeed, depending on the degree of competition, market access concessions on tariffs may be effectively undone in some cases by changes in margins. For exporters, we find that service competition in destination markets matters most for exporters from smaller, poorer countries. Our results also suggest that while negotiated agreements leading to cross‐border services liberalisation may boost goods trade as well, they may also lead to a fall in goods trade when such liberalisation involves FDI leading to increased service sector concentration.     

CAFTA早期收获产品的贸易效应评估

文章基于1999～2006年中国和东盟五国早期收获产品(EHP)贸易流量数据,应用贸易比重指数和行业贸易引力模型,评估中国和东盟五国早期收获产品的贸易效应。结果表明,CAFTA对成员国的EHP区内出口具有贸易扩大效应;同时对东盟五国之间和区外国家与成员国的EHP进出口存在贸易转移效应。在CAFTA今后的建设中,成员国应该采取措施,在促进区内贸易扩大的同时,减少对区外的贸易转移,以获得更大的贸易创造。     

Real Exchange Rates and ASEAN Trade

This paper systematically analyses the longer-term effects on the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) trade of changes in competitiveness brought about by changing real exchange rates. We introduce a model to explain exports from four ASEAN countries which highlights the role of real exchange rates. Specifically, we provide evidence on the price responsiveness of export demand. The results indicate that (i) there have been large changes in real exchange rates; and (ii) the pattern of ASEAN trade responds to relative prices (real exchange rates). Suprisingly, however, the impact of observed changes in real exchange rates on ASEAN trade is only relatively minor.     

东盟服务贸易现状和影响因素的分析——基于1980-2007年的样本

根据1980-2007年的样本数据分析了东盟及其成员国服务贸易总额、增长速度、贸易结构等特点,指出东盟服务贸易发展迅速,部分国家新兴服务贸易贡献力度大,但是总体上仍以传统服务贸易为主,并对影响东盟服务贸易发展的因素做了实证分析,指出货物贸易规模、FDI规模和服务业发展水平对其均有显著的正向影响,其中FDI规模对东盟的服务贸易拉动作用最大,并在此基础上提出了对我国服务贸易发展的启示和借鉴。     

ASEAN‐China Free Trade Area: A Bane or Boon for ASEAN Countries?

At the ASEAN Summit in November 2000, the leaders of ASEAN and China agreed to enhance economic cooperation and integration with the goal of establishing an ASEAN‐China Free Trade Area (FTA). This decision was a natural response to a number of important global and regional developments of the past decade. Since the signing of the framework agreement, policymakers from China and ASEAN member states have already started their negotiations on the specific terms and features for this proposed FTA. While such an FTA would hold the potential of yielding enormous economic benefits, it also causes some sense of apprehension and uncertainty in some quarters, due to the common perception that China is already a strong competitor in trade and attracting foreign investment. To examine the economic basis for such concern, this paper analyses the economic implications of this proposed free trade area from the ASEAN economies’ perspective. Specifically, it examines how competitive ASEAN countries are vis‐à‐vis China, evaluate the scope for strengthening China‐ASEAN trade and the impediments facing Chinese and ASEAN investors in each other's markets, and recommends policy measures to maximise the benefits and minimise the hardships resulting from an ASEAN‐China FTA.     

Costly investment and complementarities in an international trade model with directed technological change

We investigate the impacts on the skill premium and on economic growth in an innovator‐imitator general equilibrium growth model assuming: (a) directed technological change; (b) international trade of intermediate goods; (c) internal costly investment in both physical capital and R&D; and (d) complementarities between intermediate goods in aggregate production. With trade of intermediate goods, the complementarities degree and investment costs influence the economic growth of both countries, but do not affect the countries' skill premia, which are directed by technological knowledge. Additionally, in agreement with related empirical literature, openness to trade of intermediate goods leads to a higher equilibrium skill premium in both countries, whereas its impact on the common growth rate can vary in sign.     

The Performance of Trading Firms in the Services Sectors – Comparable Evidence from Four EU Countries

We examine trade complexity and the implications of adding additional dimensions of trade for firm performance among services producers. We use unique firm‐level data to compare these patterns across four EU countries. Overall, services firms are relatively less engaged in trade than manufacturing firms; they mostly trade goods and are more likely to import than to export. Trade in services is quite rare; services are more likely to be traded by firms already trading goods. Trading firms in the services sectors are significantly larger, more productive and pay higher wages than non‐traders. Two‐way traders outperform one‐way traders. Changes in trading status by either adding another dimension of trade (imports, exports) or another type of product (goods, services) are infrequent and are associated with significant preswitching premia. In contrast, learning effects from switching trading status are uncommon. This points to significant fixed cost of being engaged in trade and confirms some previous findings that trading services firms have similar traits as their manufacturing counterparts. Apart from greater trade participation in smaller countries, we do not observe systematic differences in terms of trade or switching premia between the four countries that might be attributable to differences in country characteristics.     

Trade Policies in Southeast Asia in the Wider Asian Perspective

This paper takes stock of trade policies in Southeast Asia after the Asian crisis and in the wake of the current global economic crisis. It compares trade policies in individual Southeast Asian countries; places them in the context of regional and global economic integration; and particularly draws implications for the region from the rise of China and India. The first section looks at recent trade and FDI patterns in Southeast Asia. Then follows an overview of key trade‐policy trends, in the region overall and in individual countries. The next sections examine ASEAN countries in international trade negotiations and agreements: first in the WTO, especially in the Doha Round; then within ASEAN; and finally on cross‐regional FTAs. The paper concludes that ASEAN countries cannot rely on external tracks ‘from above’ for meaningful trade policy reform. Since the Asian crisis there has been a slowdown of reform momentum, and too much reliance on trade negotiations – especially FTAs. Rather, countries in the region have to rely on themselves –‘from below’ as it were. The engine of liberalisation and regulatory reform has to be home‐driven – as it was before the Asian crisis – with governments taking unilateral measures in response to internal and external conditions.