Racial differences in consumer expenditure patterns, 1972–73

Summary and Conclusion In this paper, we have endeavored to analyze black-non-black differences in expenditure patterns as revealed by the 1972–73 BLS Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey Summary. Specific data shortcomings have been noted above. In addition, however, possible black-non-black differences in the propensity to misreport or withhold information may have affected the reliability of our findings. With these limitations in mind, the evidence of the survey data points to a main conclusion, namely, that although the “average” black consumer unit tended to spend a larger proportion of its after-tax income than the “average” non-black unit-just as the well-known stereotype implies-the statistical model underlying our analysis suggests that black consumer units with the same “characteristics” (after-tax income, family size, regional location, as well as the same age, education, and retired-nonretired status of family head) as the average non-black units tended to spend a smaller-not larger-proportion of their income than did the “comparable” non-black units. In addition, the model suggests that if Blacks maintained their own average characteristics but had the same “consumer behavior” as non-blacks, their APSp would rise substantially.     

Taxation and the redistribution of income

Conclusion This paper has offered no empirical evidence, and is not trying to argue that after-tax relative wage rates will not change at all in response to a change in the progressivity of the tax structure.⁸ Rather, the point is that there is a market mechanism that causes changes in progressivity to be at least partially offset by changes in the pretax wage structure. This mechanism is not taken into account by any model of redistribution through taxation that treats labor output as a homogeneous factor of production. Treating labor output as homogeneous eliminates adjustments to relative wages that are certain to occur in response to a change in the progressivity of the tax structure. Thus, progressive taxation has less ability to redistribute income than is commonly realized. Any shortcomings in the paper remain the responsibility of the authors.     

Should Higher Education Subsidies Depend on Parental Income?

In many countries, student grants, tuition fees, and subsidizedloans depend on parental income. This paper examines the efficiencyand distributional effects of such conditioning, and assesseswhether it is optimal practice when the government wants toreduce after-tax income inequality in the most efficient manner.Increasing the mean level of education among the work-forcecompresses wage differentials by level of education and therebythe pre-tax income distribution. Hence, subsidizing educationmay be part of an optimal redistribution policy. However, educationsubsidies mainly benefit high-ability students, limiting theirredistributive virtues. Conditioning education subsidies onparental income may enable the government to reduce inframarginalsubsidies, mainly benefiting high-ability students, while preservingthe marginal subsidy, and thus the favourable effect on themean education level which leads to wage compression.     

Socially weighted real income comparisons: An application to India

In an article in 1976, Amartya Sen develops a general theoretical framework for comparing real consumption over time and across countries that dispenses, in the words of Graaff, ‘with the time-honoured device of drawing a distinction between the size and distribution of the national income’. After developing a general theoretical framework taking distribution as an integral part of real income comparison, Sen applies it to a comparison of rural real consumption per head in Indian states in 1961–1962. In the present paper we show that the application of clustering techniques to Sen's data on Indian states provides an alternative way to partially order observations by real consumption per head within the framework of Sen's approach to distribution-inclusive measurement of real consumption. This alternative way has some desirable empirical characteristics. Second, we explore with factor analysis whether this alternative method yields sensible empirical interrelationships with other characteristics with which a priori reasoning and knowledge suggest it ought to be correlated. The results suggest that the cluster analysis applied within Sen's theoretical framework provides a valid way of comparing consumption levels.     

Distribution of income, technology and employment: An analysis of the industrial sectors of Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela

The increasingly popular strategy which postulates that a redistribution of income can automatically produce a higher level of employment and in turn, a better distribution of income, is discussed in this paper with special reference to the industrial sector. On the basis of data from Ecuador, Perú and Venezuela and utilizing a Leontieff type of model disaggregated by technological strata, the author concludes that the redistribution of income does not significantly affect employment in the industrial sector, since the two fundamental assumptions on which the positive results are expected are of doubtful validity. On one hand, the structure of consumption of industrial goods is inelastic to changes in income distribution and on the other, the production of wage goods does not necessarily imply the use of more labour intensive techniques.Given the need to improve the distribution of income, the author maintains that for such redistribution to be used to promote employment creation, special attention should be given to the direction of consumption of those benefited with the redistribution and to the channelling of the additional demand towards those establishments which use more labour intensive techniques.     

Nonlinear income variance profiles and consumption inequality over the life cycle

In contrast to many other countries, consumption inequalities in Japan are not constant over household age but increase from around middle age—a fact first highlighted by Ohtake and Saito [Ohtake, F., Saito, M., 1998. Population aging and consumption inequality in Japan. Rev. Income Wealth 44, 361–381]. Given this information, we examine whether this phenomenon is consistent with the standard precautionary saving model developed by Carroll [Carroll, C.D., 1997. Buffer-stock savings and the life cycle/permanent income hypothesis. Quart. J. Econ. 62, 1–56]. Specifically, we investigate: (1) the degree of age dependence of idiosyncratic income risks; and (2) the importance of age dependence for the evolution of inequalities in consumption predicted by the household model of Carroll (1997). We find a strong age dependence of income risks, which creates a nonlinear age–variance profile of income, and the standard precautionary saving model is consistent with the observed consumption inequalities as long as we take the nonlinearity in age–variance profiles of income into account.     

城乡收入分配差距与居民消费关系的实证研究——以江苏省为例

近二十年来,江苏省经济高速增长,但在增长的过程中出现了收入差距不断扩大和居民消费需求不足的现象。文章通过构建模型实证分析了江苏省收入分配差距与居民消费之间的关系,研究结果表明:收入分配差距与居民消费之间存在着长期稳定的关系,城乡收入分配差距对城镇居民消费有显著的负面影响,但对农村居民消费的影响并不显著。     

海南城乡居民消费水平差异性分析和预测

从1985-2018年海南城乡居民收入、消费数据出发,分别建立消费关于收入、消费差距关于收入差距的自回归模型,结果表明农村居民当期消费更易受近期收入和消费水平的影响,具有不稳定性。再利用GM(1,1)模型预测城乡居民收入差距,结合自回归模型,完成未来10年海南城乡消费差距的预测：收入差距和消费差距将呈直线递增趋势,收入差距的增幅高于消费差距增幅。缩小海南城乡居民消费差距的根本途径在于缩小收入差距,应因地制宜,切实提高农民收入水平。     

External Shocks and High Volatility in Consumption in Low‐Income Countries

According to the well‐known concept of consumption smoothing, the volatility of consumption is low even when income is volatile; this is confirmed by data from G7 countries. Surprisingly, however, consumption volatility in many low‐income countries is nontrivially higher than income volatility. Here I examine what causes high consumption volatility in low‐income countries. In general, volatile consumption makes consumers worse off. Therefore, understanding the causes of high consumption volatility can contribute to improving welfare in low‐income countries by suggesting measures to assist in the stabilization of consumption. Unlike much previous research, I focus on international factors when explaining high consumption volatility. The results suggest that external shocks, which are far more volatile in low‐income countries than in industrialized countries, strongly swing consumption. By capturing these mechanisms, the model I use successfully accounts for consumption volatility's differences between the sample low‐income country and sample industrialized country.     

The Demand For Money: A Structural Econometric Investigation

This study empirically investigates dynamic microfoundations for the conventional static money demand equation. An intertemporal substitution model with the addilog utility function yields a money demand relationship that closely approximates the double log specification. Results from previous empirical studies largely support the derived equation. Estimations with quarterly U.S. data support cointegration among real per capita M1 and consumption, and an after-tax long-term interest rate for the post-1980 period. Estimated short-run intertemporal interest rate elasticities of consumption vary from -0.26 to -0.93. Estimated long-run elasticities of substitution between consumption and money range from -0.26 to -0.41.     

收入差距、房价与消费变动——基于面板数据联立方程模型的分析

正确理清收入差距与房地产价格的关系,探知其对消费的影响,是实现我国扩大内需战略所面临的重要问题。本文基于我国的2000-2008年31个省、市(自治区)的面板数据,构造联立方程模型,深入探讨了收入差距、房地产价格与消费的关系,结果发现,收入差距与房价之间存在着正向的互动关系,但是对消费的影响却呈现出一定的区域差异,在东中部地区,收入差距与房价之间这种相互强化的关系,使得代表消费主体的广大中低收入群体的住房负担加重,不得不减少消费。但是在西部地区,由于住房负担相对较轻,能正向发挥财富效应,所以收入差距与房价之间的互动影响,反而促进了消费。这种差异正好折射出我国区域经济发展的不平衡性。因此,有必要通过对收入分配的合理调整,实施稳健的货币政策和有效的住房保障政策来科学调控房价,进而切实促进消费。     

How Sensitive is FDI to Differences in Corporate Income Taxation within the EU?

Differences between corporate taxation of EU member states drive a wedge between after-tax and pre-tax productivity. This implies that productivity could be increased by reallocating capital from low-tax to high-tax member states. Moreover, the integration of the EU capital market may trigger tax competition among member states. The responsiveness of investors to taxation is crucial for the importance of both the misallocation of capital and the extent of tax competition. In this paper we measure this responsiveness by examining the relation between FDI positions and effective corporate income tax rates. Our estimates show that investors from one EU member state increase their FDI position in another EU member state by approximately four percent if the latter decreases its effective corporate income tax rate by one percentage point relative to the European mean.     

收入分配、居民消费与经济发展方式转变

改革开放30年来我国经济持续地高速增长过程中呈现出收入差距不断扩大和居民消费需求不振等问题。文章通过构建模型实证检验了收入分配、居民消费与经济增长之间的关系,研究结果表明：尽管收入差距对农村居民消费的影响并不显著,但城镇居民收入分配差距对其消费有显著的负面影响,我国居民收入差距扩大显著地制约了我国消费需求的增长;居民消费对经济增长存在显著的积极影响,且对经济增长的效应强于投资,扩大居民消费有利于我国经济可持续发展。文章据此提出了针对性的政策建议。     

资产财富和居民消费——来自中国省际面板数据的经验证据

随着"双循环"发展战略的提出，如何提升我国居民消费成为研究热点。与已有研究不同，文章首先从省际视角研究了居民消费行为的影响因素，证实了金融资产和住房资产分别对消费产生的促进作用和抑制作用，且金融资产的促进作用大于住房资产的抑制作用。其次，文章探讨了两种资产对不同种类消费品的影响，金融资产增加主要促进教育娱乐医疗等改善性消费，住房资产增加则主要抑制基本品消费。最后，文章对不同省份居民消费的影响因素进行异质性分析，发现金融资产对消费的促进作用随收入、资产增加先上升后下降，而住房资产对消费的抑制作用随收入、资产增加先上升后下降，金融资产和住房资产在东部地区影响小于西部地区，且受区域教育、人口和收入结构影响。综上来看，提升居民收入水平，改善居民收入结构，控制房价过度上涨，改善资本市场在资产分配中的作用，加大政府在教育、医疗、养老等公共服务方面的投入能够有效改善家庭资产结构，提升居民消费水平。     

我国城镇居民消费行为的协整研究及政策建议

文章依据1978-2010年间城镇居民消费与收入的样本数据,运用协整研究方法,对城镇居民的消费行为进行了实证研究.研究表明,城镇居民收入低,消费与收入之间存在长期均衡关系;城镇居民短期消费易受冲击,城镇居民的长、短期消费的乘数都较小,从而客观上形成城镇居民消费对经济增长的贡献率较低的现实;并且城镇居民消费的长期弹性、短期弹性都较小,消费增长过多地依靠收入增长,但其却很低;线性模型和对数线性模型都是可以选择的形式.对此提出了让城镇居民们也能体面地生活的政策建议.     

省域和省际层面上的收入和消费差距——基于中国省份面板数据展开的唯象研究

采用聚类、统计拟合及复杂网络等方法,对2002-2010各省数据分析发现:人均收入大于20000的省份,城乡收入差距在低水位上扩大;低于20000的省份,差距在高水位上呈现倒U型片段。人均收入越高区域,城乡差距越小。城乡收入差距的轨迹是一有倒U型波段衔接成的向下延展的波。近十年城乡差距在扩大,如今维持在11年左右;省内城乡差距最大和最小年数分别是15和7年,且在地理空间上呈现聚集性;省际最大差距年数是13年,省际城镇和省际乡村最大差距分别是8年和13年;城镇消费率近15年持续走低,乡村消费率呈现倒U型片段,且如今乡村消费率高于城镇。还发现:乡城消费率差越小,城乡收入差距就越小,呈现"若乡村消费率每高于城镇消费率1%,城镇人均收入和乡村人均收入比约扩大20%"的数量关系,而解决城乡差距的政策是提高城镇消费率。省份个数分布图从一谱带较窄的分布到一谱带较宽的分布,接着连续性断裂,演化成分立的离散谱带,即社会出现模块化的阶层。     

西部地区农村居民不同来源的收入对其消费的影响

本文基于我国西部11个省2000～2009年的面板数据,利用凯恩斯消费函数模型,分析不同来源的收入对农村居民消费的影响。研究发现西部地区农村居民家庭经营收入的消费效应最大,工资收入对消费的影响在逐渐提高;转移性收入对消费的影响并不显著;财产性收入则没有通过显著性检验。最后本文提出了有利于提高西部地区农村居民消费率的政策建议。     

我国居民消费的平滑性研究——基于“相关性UC模型”的实证

我国居民消费的平滑性是扩大内需的政策产生效果的一个障碍。本文利用"相关性UC模型"来研究收入-消费关系,试图利用该模型中消费、总收入和持久收入之间新息的相关性来验证我国居民消费行为更符合哪一种消费行为理论。最后实证结果说明,凯恩斯主义消费理论,习惯形成理论和预防性储蓄,持久收入假说都不能完美的解释我国居民的消费行为。相对来说,其消费行为更接近于持久收入理论。     

Analyse de la consommation des biens culturels au Togo

This paper analyses the determinants of consumption decision and household expenditure on cultural goods in Togo, based on survey data from the 2015 QUIBB Basic Well‐being Indicators. The determinants of consumption decision are empirically estimated from a probit model while the determinants of consumption expenditure on cultural goods are estimated from a Tobit model and the CLAD (Censored Lead Absolute Deviation) method. The results show that the decision to consume cultural goods is positively affected by the higher level of education and the place of residence but negatively affected by the size of the household. Likewise, households' consumption expenditure is significantly influenced by income, education level, place of residence, household size, and religion. However, estimation by the CLAD method shows that the magnitude of the effect of these factors differs from one quantile to another. Furthermore, our results highlight a U‐shaped relationship between cultural spending and income. Taking these factors into account can help revive the cultural sector in Togo.     

劳动者收入与扩大消费需求——基于经济增长模式转型背景

在经济增长模式转型背景下研究我国劳动者收入问题对于扩大消费需求具有十分重要的影响:当前我国劳动者持久性收入过低以及持久性收入的不稳定性、预防性特征抑制了居民消费需求的增长;劳动者暂时性收入的不确定性特征降低了居民的消费需求。如果能够通过大幅增加劳动者的持久性收入,就可以使劳动者形成对未来收入的稳定性预期,这对扩大国内消费需求和经济增长模式的转型具有非常重要的作用。因此,为提高劳动者收入和扩大居民的消费需求,本文提出以下对策建议:建立工资正常增长机制和支付保障机制;调整国民收入分配结构;建立完善的社会保障制度;深化金融体制改革,创新金融工具。