Do gender identities of femininity and masculinity affect the intention to buy ethical products?

This study shows that gender identity affects ethical intentions. We investigate the intention to purchase ethical products through a survey study among young consumers in Italy. Measures of planned behavior, internal ethics, self-identity, and moral harm, together with proxies for individual gender identities of femininity and masculinity are included in our model of intention to purchase ethically. Results show that femininity significantly increases ethical intent, whereas masculinity has an opposite effect. These findings are robust to gender. In fact, the relations of femininity and masculinity on the intention to consume ethical products hold when the subsamples of males and females are considered. This study relates to the ongoing debate regarding the determinants of ethical decision-making and the feminine stereotype by extending the understanding of the attitude-intention gap in ethical consumption among young consumers in Italy. Finally, implications and avenues for further research are discussed.     

Beyond “Pink It and Shrink It” Perceived Product Gender,Aesthetics, and Product Evaluation

Marketing research on product personality suggests that products possess gender; however, the process by which a product becomes masculine or feminine is unknown. This research identifies product aesthetics as a source of product masculinity and femininity and investigates the influence of product gender created by aesthetics on consumer behavior. Building on prior work on anthropomorphism and evolutionary psychology (EP), the authors broadly hypothesize that specific physical characteristics identified as representing masculinity and femininity—and thus considered attractive in the mate selection process—will have a similar effect on products. The first study identifies the impact of the aesthetic dimensions of form (proportion, shape, and lines), color (tones, contrast, and reflection), and material (texture, surface, and weight) on defining a product's gender. The second study shows that products that are strongly gendered, particularly those that are strong in both the masculine and feminine dimensions, result in positive affective and behavioral responses. Thus, this research identifies product aesthetics as a significant source of product gender while highlighting the theoretical contribution of EP to consumer behavior. Managerial implications for product design are then discussed, offering guidelines for creating strongly gendered products.     

Communicating brand gender through type fonts

The marketing literature suggests that positioning a brand in terms of brand gender (i.e., brand masculinity and brand femininity) generates favorable consumer responses, yet there is little research on how brand gender perceptions arise. This research examines whether type font can be employed to create brand gender perceptions in the context of unfamiliar brands. Building on the theoretical framework of personality inferences based on static cues, three studies involving a range of type fonts, brand names, and product categories demonstrate that type font influences consumers’ perceptions of brand gender. Type font effects emerged for brand names presented in isolation (Study 1), brand names presented on signage (Study 2a), and brand names on product labels (Studies 2b and 3). Importantly, type font effects on brand gender persisted in the presence of a competing brand gender cue (i.e., brand name with gender associations), and type font and brand name influenced brand gender perceptions independently. A fourth study demonstrates that type fonts representing the brands influence consumers’ likelihood to recommend the brand. The article concludes with a discussion of theoretical and brand management implications.     

The role of gender identity in explaining sex differences in business owners' career satisfier preferences

This study examines how gender identity explains what male and female business owners look for from their careers. Results suggest that gender identity, represented by the dimensions of masculinity and femininity, serves as a cognitive mechanism that contributes to sex differences in business owners' career satisfier preferences. Masculinity mediates the relationship between sex and preferences for status-based satisfiers. Femininity mediates the relationships between sex and preferences for employee relationship satisfiers and contribution to society satisfiers. These results support the view that entrepreneurship is a gendered process and that incorporation of a feminine perspective into entrepreneurial theories and research is needed.     

Nudity of female and male models in primetime TV advertising across seven countries

This study partially replicates and extends previous research on nudity by examining TV advertising across multiple countries (Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, South Korea, Thailand and the United States) and by incorporating multiple factors (cultural values, advertising regulation and product type). Results show that female (but not male) nudity differed substantially across countries, and females were portrayed in greater states of undress than males. US and Chinese commercials showed the lowest level of nudity, whereas German and Thai ads showed the highest level. Cultural values (masculinity/ femininity) and advertising regulation (pre-clearance policy) explain only minimally the degree of model nudity in ads across the countries. Although each of the three factors offers some value for predicting degrees of male and female nudity, congruent product category appears to be the most significant predictor, supporting a match-up hypothesis and congruency theory. Results are discussed in terms of global advertising strategy.     

The catharsis of male consumption: Reimagining masculinity in India

Research on alternate masculinity from India that emphasize consumption and consequent subjective well-being (SWB) is primarily about gay men. However, our research points to different marginal masculinity, alternate consumption, and consecutive SWB. The present study uses in-depth interview methods to uncover the “marginal” masculinity of a group of urban, upper-middle-class, heterosexual Indian men. We probe their consumption as a part of their identity project referred to as cathartic. Such consumption leads to a sense of high subjective consumer well-being amidst an otherwise patriarchally defined Indian consumptionscape. This almost fledgling group of men relates itself to the shifting world order of normative masculinity, denounces the patriarchal norms, betrays the cause of male privilege, empathetically responds to the paradigms of femininity, accepts the fall of hegemonic forms of masculinity, and is sensitive toward “others” and ecological/sustainability issues. We further argue that this “cathartic masculinity,” as evident through their consumption, may impact the fledging gender-fluid marketplace of tomorrow.     

The Effect of Brand Gender on Brand Equity

Brand personality has been suggested as an important source of consumer‐based brand equity, yet empirical research on the relation between brand personality perceptions and brand equity is scarce. This article examines the link between masculine and feminine brand personality and brand equity as well as the underlying process of this relationship. Study 1 reported herein involves 140 existing brands and demonstrates that high levels of brand masculinity and femininity relate positively to brand equity, and that this relation is not moderated by participants’ sex. Study 2 demonstrates that brand gender accounts for brand equity ratings above and beyond other brand personality dimensions. Study 3 identifies ease of categorization as the underlying mechanism for the relationship between brand gender and brand equity.     

Gay Consumers and Brand Usage: The Gender‐Flexing Role of Gay Identity

Prior research suggests that gender identity congruity between an individual and product brand will yield positive responses in terms of consumer behavior, However, gender atypicality has been observed among gay males and lesbians, which may confound previous research conducted under a heteronormative gaze. Drawing on research in psychology that considers gay identity as a cognitive construct and a component of self‐concept, the findings of this study indicate that an individual's strength of gay identity and involvement in the gay community appear to invert effects of “typical” gender schema congruity on brand usage for both gay males and lesbians.     

Can conscious consumption be learned? The role of Hungarian consumer protection education in becoming conscious consumers

The purpose of this research is to examine how consumer consciousness can be defined, along what dimensions it might be measured and, according to these dimensions, how conscious Hungarian university students are. In addition, it is also discussed how their consumer protection education might contribute to their consumer consciousness. Two hypotheses have been proposed concerning factors potentially affecting conscious consumer behaviour (gender; participation in consumer protection education). To test these hypotheses, a questionnaire survey has been conducted with a total of 280 respondents, whom are undergraduate students of a Hungarian university. It is found that different aspects of consciousness dominate the consumer decisions of females and males. Female respondents appear to be characterized more by hedonistic consumption but they are more price sensitive than males. Veblen effect is stronger for males, and they have greater trust in well‐known brands. Although the survey revealed that both research variables might affect consumer behaviour (not only gender but the participation in consumer protection education as well), the role of education cannot be unambiguously identified in the process of establishing consumer consciousness. On the one hand, the results show that the behaviour of ‘trained’ consumers is mainly characterized by price sensitiveness, while the other (‘non‐educated’) group is more reliant on marketing and brands. However, on the other hand, it might also be concluded that young adults participating in the survey already have their own consumer habits and preferences; therefore, their consumer behaviour is more difficult to be formed by means of education during their university years. These findings are nevertheless limited to Hungarian university students and cannot be generalized to the entire society or other countries.     

Gender identity and brand incongruence: when in doubt,pursue masculinity

Gender identity is the extent to which an individual identifies with masculine or feminine personality traits. Sex roles in Western societies continue to evolve, so this research examines the developing relationship between gender identity and consumer responses to gendered branding. Grounded in self-congruency theory [Sirgy, M. J. (1982). Self-concept in consumer behavior: A critical review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 287–300], the present research reports an experiment that supports a congruence relationship between gender identity and brand response. Masculine consumers prefer masculine brands. The results also show incongruent brand rejection where masculine consumers react negatively to feminine brands although feminine consumers are more accepting of masculine brands. Further, the results suggest that gender identity is a more effective dimension for customer segmentation than biological sex. Overall, the results suggest that masculine brands are more effective than other gendered brand profiles for masculine, feminine, and androgynous consumers.     

Designing for the genders: The role of visual harmony

While marketers often design their offers to visually appeal to either female or male audiences, the traditional view on gender is changing. This research explores (1) the influence of gender on the perception and attractiveness evaluation of marketing visuals varying in harmony including (2) the underlying mechanisms through which gender differences occur, and (3) the differential roles of biological sex and gender identity. Drawing from the selectivity hypothesis and self-congruity theory, we argue that consumers process visual harmony along three distinct stages: (a) an early stage where their biological sex plays a role, (b) an intermediate stage where the consumer appraises cognitive effort, and (c) a late stage where consumers evaluate the congruity between the design and their self, including their gender identity. Four studies test these propositions using mixed methods, a variety of marketing visuals, and different concepts of gender. We find that biological sex plays a moderating role in the early phase of visual harmony perception due to men's and women's differential processing abilities, whereas gender identity plays a significant role later in the more reflective phase of visual harmony evaluation. Managerial implications for gendered marketing and avenues for future research are delineated.     

The unique predictive ability of sex-role identity in explaining women's response to advertising

This study explores and compares the separate contributions of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny in explaining women's response to modern and traditional sex-role portrayals in print advertisements. It also considers whether sex-role identity captures unique predictive information above and beyond specific demographic variables. This study consisted of a field experiment among 200 adult women; each respondent was exposed to several carefully prepared print ads. The findings suggest that sex-role identity is a useful predictor of women's response to advertisements. Moreover, masculinity is the driving force in explaining women's response to the tested ads. Androgyny, however, adds no incremental predictive ability. The findings indicate that sex-role identity does capture new information, unexplained by specific demographic variables. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The effect and moderation of gender identity congruity: Utilizing “real women” advertising images

The present article examines the predictive ability of gender identity congruity in explaining women's responses to advertising appeals. The contributions of the article are twofold: (1) to demonstrate whether advertisements that are congruent with female consumers' gender identities elicit strong positive responses and (2) to identify the factors that moderate/mediate the impact of gender identity congruity on consumer responses to advertisements. The research findings provide evidence of the ability of gender identity congruity to elicit positive responses to advertising appeals. The relationship between gender identity congruity and responses to the advertisement is mediated by advertising involvement. The moderating roles of national culture, physical concern, and physical view are also supported. Overall, the congruity theory provides a powerful framework to examine consumer responses to gender portrayals in advertising. ©2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Gender schema and fashion consciousness

Psychologists, consumer researchers, and marketers have long measured psychological traits related to gender, especially gender schema. This study assesses various psychological gender measures, including a new one, gender consciousness, in relation to a marketing variable of interest, fashion consciousness. Results indicate that biological sex is predominant when assessing the two sexes together. However, other variables emerge as important when within-sex differences are assessed: public self-consciousness for females and private gender consciousness (a new measure) for males. Marketing implications are discussed, primarily on the basis of these within-sex differences, since fashion marketers usually target separately one or the other sex in their campaigns.     

An empirical assessment of cross‐cultural age self‐construal measurement: Evidence from three countries

This study investigated which age measures, independent or interdependent, were better for cross‐cultural consumer research. Specifically, it assessed the fit between the “actual” and “ideal” self‐concept model within the framework of self‐construal theory by examining the actual and ideal self‐attributed age identity across South Korea ( n = 480), China ( n = 207), and France ( n = 338) using both independent and interdependent age identity scales. Multivariate analyses revealed differences for individuated self‐schemata across the three countries for actual and ideal age self‐construal, as well as for actual other‐referent interdependent age self‐schemata. However, the reverse occurred too: The ideal interdependent ages showed a lack of difference across the three different cultures. Overall, the results indicate that interdependent decade scales are better than independent age scales for cross‐cultural consumer behavior studies. Though such scales are more complex, they are easy to translate and to administer, and simple to analyze and to interpret. Evidence also suggests that such scales are reliable and robust across disparate samples in the countries studied. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Claiming the Throttle: Multiple Femininities in a Hyper‐Masculine Subculture

This feminist re‐examination of an ethnography of Harley‐Davidson motorcycle owners uncovers a world of motivations, behaviors, and experiences undiscovered in the original work. The structure and ethos of subculture are understood differently when examined through the lens of feminist theory. Through the voices of women riders in a hyper‐masculine consumption context we discover perspectives that cannot easily be explained by extant theory of gender and consumer behavior. We find women engaging, resisting, and co‐opting hyper‐masculinity as part of identity projects wherein they expand and redefine their own personal femininities. This study reveals invisible assumptions limiting the original ethnography and thus reiterates the problems of hegemonic masculinity in the social science project.     

The use of the consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity scales in Iran: A research note

This research note presents the results of testing the reliability of two constructs from the country‐of‐origin literature—consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity—within the Iranian national consumer environment. Consumer ethnocentrism, developed by Shimp and Sharma (1987), measures the level of consumer ethnocentrism and has been used broadly in several countries. The consumer animosity scale (Klein, Ettenson, & Morris, 1998), a newer construct, has not been widely tested for its reliability in diverse national contexts. The country of Iran, with its ongoing dispute and hostility with the United States, provides an ideal context to test both of these constructs. We utilized the original animosity scale and an adapted version of the ethnocentrism scale. Both scales performed well and provide strong support for the reliability of each construct, allowing other researchers a high degree of confidence in their application. This finding suggests that these research tools may be useful and can be expanded to the greater Middle East region. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Right metaphor,right place: choosing a visual metaphor based on product type and consumer differences

This research examines the effectiveness of different metaphor types (juxtaposition vs. replacement vs. fusion) while taking into account the potential impacts of product type, consumer gender differences, and consumer cognitive capacity. The experimental results indicate that ads with metaphors are more effective than those without, regardless of the type of metaphor being used. For females, a replacement metaphor is more effective in ads for ‘search products’, while a juxtaposition metaphor is more effective in ads for ‘experience products’. Juxtaposition metaphors are more effective for males, regardless of product type. When the focus is narrowed to the cognitive capacity of female participants, metaphor type and product type are found to have an interactive effect on females with high cognitive capacity. Fusion metaphors have the advantage when promoting a search product to high cognitive capacity females. The results suggest that practitioners can more effectively promote their products by choosing the right type of metaphor.     

Attitudes of University Students toward Business Ethics: A Cross-National Investigation of Australia, Singapore and Hong Kong

With the current globalisation and complexity of today’s business environment, there are increasing concerns on the role of business ethics. Using culture and religion as the determinants, this paper presents a cross-national study of attitudes toward business ethics among three countries: Australia, Singapore and Hong Kong. The results of this paper have shown the attitudes toward business ethics to be significantly different among the three countries. It was also found that respondents who practised their religion tend to consider themselves more ethically minded than those who do not. Additional findings on gender have also revealed significant differences between the males and females for respondents in Singapore and Australia. Males are generally considered more ethical than females across the three countries studied. Dr. Ian Phau teaches Marketing at the Curtin University of Technology. He is an avid researcher in the area of country image and branding issues. He also edits a peer reviewed marketing journal. Garick Kea is a researcher with the Curtin University of Technology. His research interests include consumer ethnocentrism, Consumer Animosity and marketing ethics.     

A cross‐cultural comparison of consumer vanity in the People's Republic of China,South Korea and Thailand: an exploratory study

In response to calls regarding the applicability of marketing scales in other cultures, the current study re‐examined the psychometric properties and measurement equivalence of the consumer vanity scale. The sample consisted of 723 undergraduate participants from China, South Korea and Thailand. Results revealed that the 21‐item, four‐factor (physical concern, physical view, achievement concern and achievement view) model of consumer vanity exhibited a satisfactory condition of psychometric properties across three samples. Multigroup analysis also revealed that the consumer vanity scales have partial factorial invariance. More specifically, the results as related to latent means comparison revealed that there are differences and similarities between the four dimensions of consumer vanity among Chinese, South Korean and Thai participants. Implications and future research directions are discussed.