General Equilibrium and the Ban on British Beef Exports

We present an ex post CGE evaluation of the ban on exports of British beef, imposed in 1996 and lifted in 1999. A specific aim is to assess the degree to which cattle, slaughtering and meat processing sectors in the UK recover their pre‐ban positions. More generally, the modelling exercise can be viewed as identifying the extent to which an economy recovers from a policy shock, or similar, when that shock is removed or reversed. Results suggest that, following removal of the ban, exports, output, factor use and trade balances in the directly affected sectors, in the short run, are below their 1996 pre‐ban levels. Whilst some recovery is evident in the long run, not all sectors regain their pre‐ban positions. The results offer further insights into the general equilibrium effects of what was a highly unusual policy shock to the UK economy, that of a three year ban on exports of beef.     

Russian Roulette at the Trade Table: A Specific Factors CGE Analysis of an Agri‐food Import Ban

In the summer of 2014 Russia imposed a ban on most agri‐food products from countries enforcing Ukraine‐related sanctions against Russia. We use a specific factors computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to simulate the short‐run impact of this retaliatory policy. The baseline is carefully designed to isolate the impacts of the ban on the European Union (EU), Russia itself and a selection of key trade partners. The modelling of the ban follows a novel approach, where it is treated as a loss of established trade preferences via reductions in consumer utility in the Armington import function. Not surprisingly, the results indicate that Russia bears the highest income loss (about €3.4 billion) while the EU recovers part of its lost trade through expansion of exports to other markets. An ex‐post comparison between simulation results and observed trade data reveals the model predictions to be broadly accurate, thereby validating the robustness of the modelling approach.     

Impacts of the End of the Coffee Export Quota System on International‐to‐Retail Price Transmission

We examine the impact of the end of the coffee export quota system (EQS) on international‐to‐retail price transmission in France, Germany and the United States. We take account of the existence of long‐run threshold effects and short‐run price transmission asymmetries (PTAs). We find evidence of threshold effects in both periods (EQS and post‐EQS) in all three countries and the presence of short‐run PTAs during the post‐EQS period in all countries, but not during the EQS period. Our results indicate that the threshold values are smaller in the post‐EQS period, suggesting that retail prices became more responsive to changes in international prices. However, the speed of adjustment towards the long‐run equilibrium decreases during the post‐EQS period in the three countries. In the short run, non‐linear impulse response analyses indicate that a shock in international prices was more persistent during the EQS period than in the post‐EQS period. Moreover, we find evidence of short‐run PTAs in the post‐EQS period, with differences across countries. We find support for the ‘rockets and feathers’ principle in the United States; in contrast, retail prices respond faster when international prices are falling in Germany and France. We explain these differences in terms of market structures.     

A counterfactual experiment about the eradication of cattle diseases on beef trade

In response to disease outbreak alerts in exporting countries, importing countries usually impose trade bans that vary in terms of product coverage and in terms of duration. We rely on a unique balanced panel dataset that covers four-digit disaggregated beef products over the 1996–2013 period, to estimate the effect of a hypothetical removal of animal diseases outbreaks on trade flows. More specifically, we investigate how bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and the foot and mouth diseases (FMDs) affect beef trade flows. We use a sectoral structural gravity approach to measure direct, conditional, and full effects, allowing inward and outward multilateral resistance indices, expenditures, and factory-gate prices to adjust to the eradication of animal diseases. The indirect channels through which BSE and FMD impact trade are important. Our counterfactual experiment suggests that Canada would secure substantial gains from BSE and FMD eradication.     

Domestic and trade impacts of foot‐and‐mouth disease on the Australian beef industry

Australia is the sixth largest producer of beef and the second largest exporter of beef. Average beef exports from Australia are approximately 65 per cent of the total amount of beef produced, about 1.3 million tonnes. Australia is particularly vulnerable to diseases that are not endemic to the country and could close or disrupt its export markets for beef. In this study, we construct a bioeconomic optimisation model of the Australian beef industry that captures production and consumption decisions, domestically and internationally, and the impacts on the beef industry of a potentially catastrophic disease, foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD). This study analyses localised to large‐scale outbreaks and suggests that changes in economic surplus because of FMD range from a positive net gain of $57 million to a net loss of $1.7 billion, with impacts on producers and consumers varying depending on the location of the outbreak, control levels and the nature of any trade ban.     

Economic impacts of El Niño southern oscillation: evidence from the Colombian coffee market

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a naturally occurring phenomenon that affects weather around the world. Past ENSO episodes have had severe impacts on the economy of Colombia. We study the influence of ENSO on Colombian coffee production, exports, and price. Our structural econometric specification is consistent with an economic model of the market for Colombian coffee which, in the short run, is characterized by a downward‐sloping demand curve and by a vertical supply curve. We show that El Niño (i.e., positive shocks to ENSO) is beneficial for Colombian production and exports and decreases the real price of Colombian coffee. On the contrary, La Niña (i.e., negative shocks to ENSO) depresses Colombian coffee production and exports and increases price. However, the overall impact of ENSO shocks is small. Both in the short run and in the long run, shocks to international demand for Colombian coffee are more relevant than supply‐side shocks in Colombia in explaining the dynamics of the price of Colombian coffee. Our results suggest that a given coffee price shock can have beneficial, detrimental, or negligible effects on the Colombian economy, depending on its underlying cause. As a consequence, policy responses to coffee price shocks should be designed by looking at the causes of the shocks.     

Agricultural Exports and Economic Growth in Developing Countries: A Panel Cointegration Approach

This paper quantifies the contribution of agricultural exports to economic growth in developing countries. We estimate the relationship between GDP and agricultural and non‐agricultural exports for 42 countries using panel cointegration methods. Results show that a long‐run relationship exists, the agricultural export elasticity of GDP is 0.07 whereas that of non‐agricultural exports is 0.13, and total exports Granger‐cause GDP, which supports the export‐led growth hypothesis. Structural differences exist in the relationship by broad income group. Balanced export‐promotion polices are implied for the poorest countries, but, for those with higher incomes, higher economic growth is achieved from non‐agricultural exports.     

How sensitive is U.S. agricultural trade to the bilateral exchange rate? Evidence from bulk,intermediate, and consumer‐oriented products

This article examines the dynamic effects of changes in bilateral exchange rates on changes in bilateral trade of bulk, intermediate, and consumer‐oriented agricultural products between the United States and its 10 major trading partners. We find that, for consumer‐oriented products, U.S. exports are highly sensitive to bilateral exchange rates in both the short and long run, while U.S. imports are mostly responsive only in the short run. For bulk products, on the other hand, U.S. exports and imports are relatively insensitive to exchange rate changes in both the short and long run. For intermediate products, exports and imports are responsive to exchange rate changes in the short run, but not in the long run. It is also found that income of the United States and its trading partners has a significant effect on U.S. exports and imports of the three types of agricultural products in both the short and long run.     

Exploring the impact of R&D and climate change on agricultural productivity growth: the case of Western Australia*

This article empirically examines the impact of R&D and climate change on the Western Australian Agricultural sector using standard time series econometrics. Based on historical data for the period of 1977–2005, the empirical results show that both R&D and climate change matter for long‐run productivity growth. The long‐run elasticity of total factor productivity (TFP) with respect to R&D expenditure is 0.497, while that of climate change is 0.506. There is a unidirectional causality running from R&D expenditure to TFP growth in both the short run and long run. Further, the variance decomposition and impulse response function confirm that a significant portion of output and productivity growth beyond the sample period is explained by R&D expenditure. These results justify the increase in R&D investment in the deteriorating climatic condition in the agricultural sector to improve the long‐run prospects of productivity growth.     

欧韩自贸协定实施对中国农产品贸易的影响

本文运用GTAP模型,就欧韩自由贸易协定实施对中国贸易规模、GDP、福利水平、农产品贸易结构以及国内农业产出结构等方面的影响进行了一般均衡模拟研究。结果表明,欧韩大部分产品实现零关税后,中国将会受到贸易转移效应的影响而出口减少、福利下降,中国的果蔬和畜产品受冲击较大,生产规模将有所萎缩。我国应调整农产品出口战略、加快区域经济合作、提高农产品竞争力,以适应面临的挑战。     

Food Price Pass‐Through and the Role of Domestic Margin Services

The recent volatility in international agricultural markets has drawn attention to the impact of rising international agricultural prices and the induced price‐insulating measures on consumer food prices. Analyses based on simulation models on this topic typically ignore the role of domestic margin services. We extend the standard Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model to allow for variations in the share of domestic margin services in consumed food across countries. This approach enables us to differentiate consumer prices from producer prices. Following the extension, the results show that domestic margin services reduce the consumer food price volatility for all countries, especially in high‐income countries, where the share of domestic margin services in final food consumption is higher. The effect of price‐insulating border policies is also reduced in the extended model. We find that our extension of the GTAP model greatly improves simulations of the 2007 surge in international agricultural prices. We validate our extension of the GTAP model by showing that the econometrically estimated food price pass‐through is decreasing with income and thus, is smaller in high‐income countries.     

CAP Subsidies and Productivity of the EU Farms

The paper investigates the impact of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies on farm total factor productivity (TFP) in the European Union (EU). We employ a structural semi‐parametric estimation algorithm directly incorporating the effect of subsidies into a model of unobserved productivity. We empirically study the effects using the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) samples for the EU‐15 countries. Our main findings are clear: subsidies impact negatively on farm productivity in the period before the decoupling reform was implemented; after decoupling the effect of subsidies on productivity is more nuanced and in several countries it turned positive.     

Trends in Approval Times for Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States and the European Union

Genetically engineered (GE) crops are subject to regulatory oversight to ensure their safety for humans and the environment. Their approval in the European Union (EU) starts with an application in a given Member State followed by a scientific risk assessment, and ends with a political decision‐making step (risk management). In the United States (US) approval begins with a scientific (field trial) step and ends with a ‘bureaucratic’ decision‐making step. We investigate trends for the time taken for these steps and the overall time taken for approving GE crops in the US and the EU. Our results show that from 1996–2015 the overall time trend for approval in the EU decreased and then flattened off, with an overall mean completion‐time of 1,763 days. In the US in 1998 there was a break in the trend of the overall approval time. Initially, from 1988 until 1997 the trend decreased with a mean approval time of 1,321 days; from 1998–2015, the trend almost stagnated with a mean approval time of 2,467 days.     

Pricing‐To‐Market Analysis: The Case of EU Wheat Exports

The EU is a major player in the global wheat market. This paper examines the pricing behaviour of EU wheat exporters using a pricing‐to‐market (PTM) analysis. Wheat is an exemplary product for testing PTM theories as it is widely and frequently traded, and largely unbranded. We estimate the relationship between export unit values and exchange rates using quarterly panel data for 11 EU export destinations for 2000–2013. Results show that there is a meaningful long‐run relationship between export unit values and exchange rates, but there is little evidence of differential mark‐ups between EU export markets. Belarus and Iceland are exceptions where exporters from the EU appear to exercise local currency price stabilisation.     

Consumption versus Demand‐Recovery after BSE?: A Fuller Analysis

Consumption versus Demand ‐ Recovery after BSE?:A Fuller Analysis Counterpoint–Hubbard – By 1999 consumption of beef in the UK had recovered to its pre‐BSE level of 1995, but what about demand? Simple market analysis demonstrates that given an initial negative shift in the demand schedule, there are five possible combinations of subsequent shifts in demand and supply that result in consumption returning to its original level. Thompson and Tallard (EuroChoices, Spring 2003) contend that demand did not recover until 2001, which implies a positive shift in supply, i.e. more beef supplied at any given price. A more likely outcome, however, is a negative supply shift, because of additional BSE‐related costs and the removal of beef from the food chain. This requires demand to have more than recovered by 1999. Thus any investigation of the impact of BSE on the beef market needs to consider supply as well as demand changes. Reply–Thompson Consumption data alone are an inappropriate benchmark to evaluate shifts in demand caused by BSE. Our estimates of the demand shift account for changes in the determining economic factors, namely meat prices and income; but consumer demand does not depend directly on beef supply. Full market analysis, however, could add useful insight if based on similar evaluations of shifts in supply, trade and stocks. La demande s'est elle rétablie au même niveau que la consommation après I'ESB ? Un complément ?analyse. Counterpoint–Hubbard En 1999, la consommation de viande bovine au Royaume‐Uni a retrouvé son niveau de 1995, avant ?EapidÉmie ?ESB. Mais qu'en est‐il de la demande ? La théorie élémentaire des marchés montre qu'à partir ?une chute initiale donnée, le retour au niveau de consommation originel peut résulter de cinq combinaisons de déplacements dans les courbes ?offre et de demande. Thompson et Tallard (Eurochoices, printemps 2003) soutiennent que la demande n'est pas revenue à son niveau original avant 2001, ce qui suppose un déplacement vers le haut de la courbe ?offre, c'est‐à‐dire, une augmentation de ?offre de bceuf pour un prix donné quelconque. Un glissement vers le bas de la courbe ?offre est cependant bien plus vraisemblable, du fait des coûts supplementaires liés aux mesures sanitaires et à?interruption de la présence du b?uf dans les filières alimentaires. Cela implique que la demande en 1999 aurait plus que compensé la chute antérieure. Ainsi, toute analyse de ?impact de ?ESB sur le marché du b?uf doit envisager la possibilityé de changements aussi bien dans ?offre que dans la demande. Réponse de Thompson A elles seules, les données concernant la consommation sont bien insuffisantes pour évaluer les changements dans les courbes de demande apportés par ?ESB. Notre estimation du glissement de la demande résulte de ia considération des facteurs qui la commandent, à savoir le prix et les revenus, sans que la demande dépende directement de ?offre. Cependant, une analyse complète du marché pourrait en effet Jeter une certaine lumière sur la question, à condition ?être basée sur des évaluations cohérentes des glissements dans ?offre, le commerce extérieur et les stocks. Verbrauch versus Nachfrage –Erholung nach dem BSE‐Skandal? Eine ausführlichere Analyse Counterpoint–Hubbard Bis zum Jahr 1999 hatte sich der Verbrauch von Rindfleisch in Großbritannien wieder auf den Stand vor dem BSE‐Skandal aus dem Jahr 1995 eingestellt, was aber war mit der Nachfrage geschehen? Eine einfache Marktanalyse zeigt, dass bei einer anfanglichen negativen Verschiebung der Nachfrage fünf Kombinationen nachfolgender Verschiebungen möglich sind, die dazu führen, dass der Verbrauch wieder seinen ursprünglichen Stand erreicht. Thompson und Tallard (EuroChoices, Frühjahr 2003) behaupten, dass sich die Nachfrage erst im Jahr 2001 erholt habe, was eine positive Verschiebung des Angebots impliziert, d.h. ein höheres Rindfleischangebot zu jedem beliebigen Preis. Ein wahrscheinlicheres Ergebnis wäre jedoch eine negative Angebotsverschiebung aufgrund von zusätzlichen mit BSE verbundenen Kosten und ein Herausfallen von Rindfleisch aus der Nahrungskette. Dies bedeutet, dass sich die Nachfrage bis zum Jahr 1999 mehr als erholt haben muss. Daher ist es erforderlich, dass jede Untersuchung der Auswirkung von BSE auf den Rindfleischmarkt sowohl Angebots‐ als auch Nachfrageanderungen berücksichtigt. Antwort–Thompson Verbrauchsdaten allein reichen nicht aus, um durch BSE verursachte Nachfrageverschiebungen zu evaluieren. Unsere Schätzungen zur Nachfrageverschiebung erklären die Änderungen in den ökonomischen Bestimmungsgründen, Fleischpreise und Einkommen; dieVerbrauchernachfrage hängt allerdings nicht direkt vom Rindfleischangebot ab. Eine ausführliche Marktanalyse könnte jedoch zusätzliche nützliche Erkenntnisse erbringen, wenn sie auf ähnlichen Bewertungen von Verschiebungen des Angebots, des Handels und der Lagerbestände beruht.     

The impact of the Asian Crisis on Australia's primary exports: why it wasn't so bad

This article explores the modest impact of the Asian Crisis on Australia's primary commodity exports. Simulations using a global general equilibrium model show: (i) as capital flees Asia, investment in Australia increases and the trade deficit grows; (ii) while terms of trade deteriorate in the short run, they improve in the medium run as import demand increases in the crisis countries; (iii) exports of primary commodities expand as the crisis countries try to export more; (iv) more income-elastic primary commodities fare less well than the income-inelastic foodstuffs as incomes decline in the crisis countries; (v) Australia's relatively low dependence on manufactured exports was a buffer as manufactured exports came under heavy pressure from exports from the crisis countries.     

Trade Bans, Imperfect Competition, and Welfare: BSE and the U.S. Beef Industry

Between May 2003 and July 2005, the U.S. beef industry faced a total ban on Canadian cattle imports following the discovery of BSE in Canada in May 2003 and restrictions on U.S. beef exports following the discovery of BSE in the United States in December 2003. When the United States reopened its border to Canadian cattle in July 2005, shipments were restricted to cattle less than 30 months of age. The total ban on Canadian cattle imports and restrictions on U.S. beef exports overlapped between January 2004 and July 2005. The restrictions on Canadian cattle imports and U.S. beef exports overlapped for some time after July 2005. This paper addresses theoretically and empirically how to disentangle the impact on the U.S. beef industry of the BSE-related beef trade interruptions in the presence of overlaps and imperfect competition. Entre mai 2003 et juillet 2005, l'industrie bovine américaine s'est vue imposer une interdiction d'importer des bovins canadiens à la suite de la découverte d'un cas d'ESB au Canada en mai 2003 ainsi que des restrictions quant aux exportations de bœuf américain à la suite de la découverte d'un cas d'ESB aux États-Unis en décembre 2003. En juillet 2005, les États-Unis ont rouvert leur frontière aux bovins canadiens vivants de moins de 30 mois uniquement. L'interdiction absolue d'importer des bovins canadiens et les restrictions sur les exportations de bœuf américain se sont chevauchées entre janvier 2004 et juillet 2005. Les restrictions sur les importations de bovins canadiens et les exportations de bœuf américain se sont chevauchées pendant quelque temps après juillet 2005. Le présent article s'est penché sur les façons, théoriques et empiriques, de démĉler les répercussions que les interruptions du commerce du bœuf attribuables à l'ESB ont eues sur l'industrie bovine américaine en présence de chevauchements et de concurrence imparfaite.     

Modeling weekly Canary tomato exports

The European tomato market is characterized by a constant process of dynamic adjustment towards equilibrium. Furthermore, Canary Island tomato exports cause a high seasonal impact on market prices in the winter period. In these circumstances, an adequate distribution of weekly shipments throughout the year could contribute to maximize producers' profits. Moreover, Canary export levels show some degree of instability, clearly related to the changes in the EU trade rules and there is a long period, in the summer, without exports. The aim of this article is to analyze the long‐term movements and, particularly, the seasonal pattern of Canary Island tomato exports throughout the last two decades. To observe more clearly the exporter's decisions, weekly data have been used. The instabilities in the long‐term behavior of the series and the specific nature of the seasonal pattern should be taken into account, to capture the performance of exports accurately. Thus, this analysis is carried out using the structural approach to time series analysis, and the usefulness of spline functions as a tool capable of modeling seasonal variations for which the period does not remain the same over time is shown.     

Externalities in the agricultural export sector and economic growth: a developing country perspective

For years economists have ignored the diversity in agriculture and its potential to increase long run growth rates by enhancing a country's knowledge base. Non-traditional agriculture requires significant investments in the infrastructure and knowledge; and therefore, has the potential to increase long run growth rates. Policy makers in developing countries have tended to enact macroeconomic policies designed to enhance the manufacturing sector at the expense of the agricultural sector. A theoretical model is developed to explain the dynamics between two non-traditional export sectors and the long run economic growth of the country. The model illustrates that growth in highly perishable agricultural exports, not domestic production of manufactured goods, can potentially lead to higher long run growth rates. The model is applied to the fruit and flower industries in Colombia to bring forth an example with real world relevance.     

Heterogeneity of Long‐run Technical Efficiency of German Dairy Farms: A Bayesian Approach*

In parametric efficiency studies, two alternative approaches exist to provide an estimate of the long‐run efficiency of firms: the dynamic stochastic frontier model and the generalised true random‐effects model. We extend the former in order to allow for heterogeneity in the long‐run technical efficiency of firms. This model is based on potential differences in firm‐specific characteristics and in firms’ inefficiency persistence. The model is applied to an unbalanced micro‐panel of German dairy farms over the period 1999 to 2009. Estimation of long‐run technical efficiency and inefficiency persistence is based on an output distance function representation of the production technology and estimated in a Bayesian framework. The results suggest that heterogeneity in long‐run technical efficiency of farms is mostly attributed to discrepancies in farm‐specific factors rather than differences in farms’ inefficiency persistence. Farm size is positively related to long‐run technical efficiency while subsidies exert a negative effect on the long‐run technical efficiency of farms. Inefficiency persistence is found to be very high, but heterogeneity in this persistence is low.