Indigenous peoples and the capability approach: taking stock

Ideas about how development is conceived, designed and implemented play an important role in determining whether and how indigenous peoples are able to pursue and realize self-determination. According to the human development and capability approach, people are the ends and means of development, understood as the expansion of capabilities people have reason to value. While conversations between the capability approach and indigenous communities are growing, the literature remains disparate and (largely) unpublished. The papers included in the first section of this special issue explore indigenous values as they apply to nature, the concept of indigenous autonomy in international law, as well as the realities of indigenous communities in Latin America, New Zealand and Australia. The second group of papers explores the usefulness of the human development and capability approach for indigenous peoples. The conclusions in this special issue range from the contention that the capability approach has severe limitations, to the contention that the approach provides helpful tools and insights.     

MARKETING BOARDS AND PRICE FUNDS IN UGANDA, 1950–1960*

Economic development is inextricably linked with the economic institutions of today and yesterday. A study of the policies and practices of these institutions may provide some understanding to the problems of today and tomorrow. This paper investigates the economic eflects of the Lint (Cotton) and Coffee Marketing Boards and their Price Assistance Funds in Uganda between 1950 and 1960. These institutions stood at the very centre of economic life for the vast majority of Ugandan Afiicans and therefore may be expected to have exerted considerable influence over their perception of the economic world. Uganda, along with so many other nations, is just emerging into the world of money, prices, and marketing, just as it has but recently achieved political independence. Indeed, Uganda, though possessing certain historical idiosyncrasies of its own, could almost be an archetypal low income, primary producing country. Now seeking economic development under an African administration, its development eforts must be perceived as prefaced on the earlier institutions of Britain's tutelage.     

How did a network of marine protected areas impact adjacent fisheries? Evidence from Australia

Marine‐protected areas (MPAs) are an effective means of improving habitat quality and biodiversity in the world’s oceans. While the advantages of MPAs as a mechanism for conservation and biodiversity are well established, the potential improvements to fishery performance resulting from a network of MPAs are still being established. Countries around the world have committed to establishing networks of MPAs within their waters by 2020, in response to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. This, coupled with the increasing global demand for seafood and heavy reliance on fishery resources as a source of economic development for many coastal communities, means that an understanding of how these networks can be expected to impact fishery performance is extremely important. We use a difference‐in‐difference modelling approach to isolate the change in the fishery performance associated with the south‐east marine reserve network in Australia. We find no evidence that the economic performance of adjacent fisheries was negatively impacted by the network. This lack of impact is likely due to a network design explicitly intended to avoid effort displacement in key fisheries, along with fishery management changes intended to remove excess fishing capacity.     

三鑫公司矿产资源综合利用与经济可持续发展

综合利用和保护矿产资源是实现矿山企业经济可持续发展的重要保障,三鑫公司矿产资源丰富,已形成规模效益.本文根据三鑫公司矿产资源的优势与潜力,开发现状以及存在的问题,提醒人们要树立资源危机及忧患意识,重点提出了矿产资源综合利用与实现经济可持续发展的对策建议.     

水产养殖经济研究文献综述

水产养殖业不仅是我国、而且是世界重要的食品供给部门,加强水产养殖的经济研究对促进其健康、持续、稳定地发展,保障全球食物供给、促进经济发展、提高从业者收入水平和消费者福利水平都有重要作用。本文在回顾国内外水产养殖经济研究文献的基础上,从研究方法、研究内容、研究品种等方面总结了其特征,指出国外以定量的实证研究、资源优化配置模型的构建等方法,在水产养殖技术经济分析、环境经济与可持续发展研究、资源的优化配置、产业发展战略与政策、水产品市场及其绩效等方面取得了较大进展,在贝类、虾类、三文鱼、罗非鱼、鲤科鱼类等主要养殖品种的经济研究成果尤为丰硕;国内水产养殖经济研究相对于国外同类研究及国内的农业经济研究存在较大差距。最后指出,水产养殖经济的学科构建、捕捞业与养殖业之间的相互关系、产业结构调整与优化、水产养殖生态经济效益、产业经济管理制度与政策研究等方面还存在众多需要突破的领域。     

我国生态旅游存在的问题及相应对策

生态旅游概念的提出是实现旅游区人地关系协调和旅游业持续发展的新理念；我国在发展生态旅游的过程中存在着对生态旅游理解的误区、生态旅游环境恶化、旅游相关人群环保意识不高及交通条件、经济水平制约着生态旅游的发展规模等一系列问题；就这些问题进行了探讨，提出了加强生态保护的宣传教育、科学进行生态旅游的规划、严格加强生态旅游的管理以及加强旅游界与生态环保部门的协作等生态旅游建设和发展的可行性建议。     

国际油价暴涨背后中国石油安全战略探析

石油作为一种重要的战略性基础能源,对一国国家经济安全产生重要影响。甚至使某些西方大国不惜动用武力来试图控制国外的石油资源。我国目前面临的状况是:国际油价高企,在强劲经济的拉动下我国石油需求持续增长,而国内原油产量增长缓慢,供求失衡不断扩大,对国际石油供应的担忧也日益严重。文章就国内目前高油价对经济的不利影响、石油供求现状、石油进口价格、风险等问题做了分析,并提出了大力开展石油期货贸易,建立石油储备体系,提高能源利用效率等项政策建议。     

Economic development, institutional change, and the political economy of agricultural protection An econometric study of Belgium since the 19th century

This empirical study uses 100 years of annual data on 11 agricultural commodities from Belgium to measure the impact of structural changes coinciding with economic development and changes in political institutions on agricultural protection. The analysis shows that changes in agricultural protection are caused by a combination of factors. Governments have increased protection and support to farmers when world market prices for their commodities fell, and vice versa, offsetting market effects on producer incomes. Other economic determinants were the share of the commodities in total consumer expenditures (negative effect) and in total output of the economy (positive effect). With Belgium a small economy, there was no impact of the trade position. Changes in political institutions have affected agricultural protection. Democratic reforms which induced a significant shift in the political balance towards agricultural interests, such as the introduction of the one‐man‐one‐vote system, led to an increase in agricultural protection. The integration of Belgian agricultural policies in the Common Agricultural Policy in 1968 coincided with an increase in protection, ceteris paribus. Both institutional factors, related to changes in access to and information about the decision‐making at the EU level, and structural changes in the agricultural and food economy may explain this effect.     

An alternative to ‘alternative development’?: Buen vivir and human development in Andean countries

In Bolivia and Ecuador the concept of Buen vivir, based on indigenous cosmologies, has been formulated by indigenous organisations as an alternative paradigm to mainstream development theory. It has also inspired environmentalist movements in their struggle for a different environmental governance beyond extractivism, and it has been appropriated by national governments to justify economic and social policies and their political agendas. In Peru, Buen vivir is emerging as a political project to express ecological concerns, as well as self-determination, territoriality and cultural rights of indigenous peoples. In these experiences the formulation and implementation of Buen vivir is a complex and contentious process which expresses the tensions and dynamics between indigenous politics and the political economy of extraction. This article explores the different meanings of Buen vivir in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru and the struggle of indigenous peoples to re-appropriate the concept which has been co-opted by the state using conventional views of development. We argue that Buen vivir serves as a political platform on the basis of which different social movements articulate social and ecological demands based on indigenous principles, in order to challenge the economic and political fundamentals of the state and the current theory, politics and policy-making of development.     

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA

In Papua and New Guinea today a rapidly growing market economy, and a primitive subsistence economy exist side by side. Australian policy calls for more economic development and quicker advancement of the indigenous people. This means that tribal subsistence society must be drawn increasingly into the development of the market economy. Broad strategies for reaching these objectives are considered along with a closer examination of problems of land tenure, wage policy and planning machinery.     

Do protected areas hamper economic development of the Amazon region? An analysis of the relationship between protected areas and the economic growth of Brazilian Amazon municipalities

The Brazilian Amazon harbours 70 % of the world’s tropical forests and is essential to the country’s economy because it maintains biodiversity, sustains the livelihoods of the indigenous people and local communities, and provides ecosystem services such as water production, soil stabilization, flood prevention, and climate regulation. In the last three decades, the Brazilian government has established a regional protected area (PA) network that currently covers approximately 48 % of the region. Despite their importance, some sectors of the Brazilian society have argued that the expansion of the PAs across the region hampers the local economic development, because they make less area available for non-forest economic activities such as large-scale agriculture, mining, and power generation. In this study, we analysed the relationship between local economic growth and PA coverage in 516 municipalities in the Brazilian Amazon from 2004 to 2014. We modelled the impact of the coverage of the three types of PAs (strictly-protected, multiple-use, and indigenous lands) on the (i) compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the real gross domestic product per capita (GDP per capita), and (ii) real gross value added per capita (GVA per capita) of the agriculture, industry, services, and government sectors in each municipality. The models also considered the following control variables at the municipal level: area, age, per capita GPD in 2004 (or per capita GVAs in 2004), population growth rate between 2004 and 2014, education index, deforested area outside PA per capita, deforested area inside PA per capita, degraded area outside PA per capita, degraded area inside PA per capita, and presence of illegal mining within PA. We applied spatial Durbin error models (SDEM) to analyse the direct, indirect, and total impacts of the PAs on the local economic growth. We did not find a statistically significant relationship between the local economic growth and PA coverage in any of the three PA groups evaluated. Only the total impact of the GVA per capita of the industry was negatively correlated with the coverage of the strictly-protected PAs. Our findings do not support the arguments used by some interest groups of the Brazilian society that the social and environmental gains generated through the expansion of PAs across the region constrain the overall local economic growth.     

改革和完善土地储备信贷资金监管方式的构想

土地储备信贷是土地储备制度建立和发展的重要基础,在我国经济发展和城镇化进程中所发挥的作用无可替代.加强土地储备信贷资金的监管、防范融资风险与充分发挥土地储备信贷功能和作用并不矛盾,一方面不应人为抬高风险,另一方面应该创新监管方式,在发展中化解风险.     

资源节约的制度创新

在价值层次上的使用价值节约主要取决于人们的文化伦理判断。但在市场经济条件下,这种道德的约束力是很有限的。按照经济学原理,节约资源必须在价值层次上采取措施才会收到理想效果。节约要靠制度来说话,但不恰当的制度必然会造成资源的损失和浪费。实践证明,制度创新是解决制度性浪费的最好办法。     

Human capital,labour market outcomes,and horizontal inequality in Guatemala

With the second largest indigenous population by percentage in Latin America, Guatemala is an important case for understanding horizontal inequality and indigenous politics. This paper presents new analysis of survey data, allowing for consideration both of indigenous and ladino populations, as well as of ethno-linguistic diversity within the indigenous population. Our analysis illustrates both the depth and persistence of horizontal inequalities in educational and labour market outcomes, and a broad trend towards greater equality. Earnings gaps have been reduced by, among other factors, improved educational outcomes. Ethnic groups also show distinct patterns of wages and wage gaps, and there is evidence of ‘sticky floors’ affecting some groups more than others. Our findings suggest that the focus on the indigenous/non-indigenous divide found in much of the economic literature on Latin America obscures meaningful diversity within the indigenous population. We posit that further consideration of such within-group diversity has implications for broader theories of ethnic politics, and in particular for understanding the comparative weakness of indigenous political mobilisation in Guatemala.     

Adoption of intercropping among smallholder rubber farmers in Xishuangbanna,China

While the expansion of rubber plantations in the mountainous areas of Southern China has contributed to poverty reduction among the indigenous ethnic groups, the concerns about the associated negatives on ecosystems and sustainable development of livelihoods is rising. One of the measures suggested to reduce environmental and economic risks is rubber intercropping. This study uses cross-section data of some 600 rubber farmers in Xishuangbanna, as a basis to develop four empirical models in order to analyse adoption of intercropping at farm and at plot level. Our study shows that only a small proportion of rubber farmers have adopted intercropping, with tea being the most frequently adopted intercrop. However, we also find that intercropping is an important source of income for the household in the lower income category. Intercropping adoption is affected by ethnicity, household wealth and family labour. The choice of intercrops depends on the nature of rubber plots, the age of rubber trees and geography. This study contributes to a better understanding of the transformation path from rubber monoculture to more diversified, rubber-based agroforestry systems and thus can provide important information for agricultural extension services charged with the promotion of sustainable rubber-based livelihood systems in the Mekong area.     

森林碳汇储备中政府监管与林农行为博弈分析

基于碳汇发展过程中政府与林农之间的博弈关系,结合嵌入式社会结构理论、农户经济理论和正式制度与非正式制度理论,构建政府监管和林农行为选择博弈模型,分析双方的博弈收益。结果表明:政府采取监管、加大扶持力度、建立健全碳汇发展体制机制、完善碳汇市场体系等措施,林农会选择执行监管政策;反之,若政府不实施相关政策,加之林农对森林碳汇认识不够,参与森林碳汇储备意愿不强等,林农会选择不执行监管政策。因此,急需建立健全碳汇交易市场体制机制、完善碳汇林补贴政策、加大政策宣传力度、创新政府监管模式,以期有效推动森林碳汇储备,从而加快森林碳汇项目发展。     

The impact of commodity price and conservation policy scenarios on deforestation and agricultural land use in a frontier area within the Amazon

Deforestation in the Amazon is caused by the complex interplay of different drivers. Price of commodities such as beef and soya, and incoming migration are paramount factors. Construction of new highways is a key aspect, as they enable a growing flow of people and economic activities, provoking an intensification of the conversion of forests into pasture and agricultural areas. The pavement of road BR-163 accelerates the expansion of the agricultural frontier from the state of Mato Grosso to Pará, inside the Amazon. Today, the Brazilian government applies two main kinds of policies to protect the environment. First by establishing conservation units (CUs) that include an array of reserve types from natural areas to indigenous lands, and second by enforcing the Forest Code (FC), a law that limits the occupation and use of forests. Legal reserve requirements for rural properties are 80% in the Amazon rainforest, 35% in the Cerrado shrublands and 20% in other regions. However, the effectiveness of these policies relies on a fragile institutional capacity, which causes a flawed monitoring, law enforcement and control. To assess the impact of effective conservation policies on land use and deforestation by 2020, we used the LUSMAPA model in combination with two scenarios, one that included different commodity price developments and migration rates and one on the assumption of the institutional strength to uphold the conservation policies. A revision of the FC from an average 80% policy target to 60% effective implementation and disregard borders of CUs by allowing 5% deforestation in CUs, that both corresponds to a ‘weak’ governmental enforcement, leads to additional deforestation of 41–57%, depending on the commodity price scenario. The results of the simulations are discussed in the light of recent policy changes in Brazil.     

生态旅游与我国自然保护区旅游生态化研究

生态旅游已成为当今世界旅游发展的潮流。自然保护区因具有资源品位高,旅游产品清新独特、客源充足和基础设施易于布置等优势和便利条件,成为生态旅游的最佳选择。然而,自然保护区在旅游开发过程中也出现了众多的非生态化现象。运用景观生态学及旅游生态学的有关原理和方法,通过采用景观生态功能分区和生态规划、景观结构生态设计和生态安全格局设计以及生态管理等生态化手段,能够促进自然保护区生态旅游的可持续发展。     

云南自然保护区周边环境与生态旅游

云南省独特的自然生态环境为云南旅游业的发展提供了不可多得的自然景观资源和优美的旅游生态环境。结合资源优势发展旅游产业,是该省今后经济发展的一个“增长点”;但该地区目前的旅游产业仅仅靠有限的旅游城市和自然保护区,其自然保护区周边的生态环境不断恶化在很大程度上制约着生态旅游业的发展。因此对自然保护区的周边环境的保护和治理则是云南生态旅游业可持续发展的重要保障。     

Managing China's pastoral lands: Current problems and future prospects

China has the second largest area of pastoral land in the world, and these lands and their peoples play a very beneficial role in the global environment. Because of China's huge population, rate of social reform, and economic development, the pastoral ecosystems are at a critical turning point. There is a conflict between national benefit and the land users (mainly herders) benefit. This paper introduces the scale of pastoral land, the history of its management institutions, past and current projects and programs, as well as the current framework of policy and law as relevant to land management. The challenges for pastoral management in terms of institutions, administration, technology and their shifting role in regional economies of scale are also analyzed. Opportunities for sustainable development in China's pastoral lands are presented. Finally, this paper highlights the available approaches for enhancing livelihoods and conserving pastoral land, including establishment of law and policy framework at the national level, redefining use rights for community management, promoting Integrated Ecosystem Management (IEM) as a basis for natural resource utilization, preserving and respecting cultural aspects of pastoral peoples, and shifting the focus from GDP generation to environmental protection.