水权质量视阈下小流域水权冲突与协调措施

从水权质量的角度出发,对小流域水权冲突诱因及其协调措施进行研究,阐述了小流域水权冲突的相关概念,归纳总结出小流域水权冲突具有主体多元化、外溢效用严重、对抗激化引致暴力冲突的特征,并对小流域水权冲突经典表现进行介绍,然后对小流域水权冲突的诱因进行了分析。结果表明:当水权以低质量的形式表现出来时,引起其他用水户交易水资源时交易成本降低,机会主义行为发生概率上升,并且水权转让水平低,新的水权冲突不断发生。另外,水权质量低也造成水权凝滞现象发生,以及水权异动频发和水权约束力下降等一系列影响,进而加剧水权冲突事件发生的频率。因此,政府应创新小流域内水利基础设施投融资机制,建立小流域水权分配机制,推进小流域水权市场建设,引入生态补偿机制,以协调由低质量的水权引起的水权冲突。     

中国水权交易的发展及其试点推广效应

水权交易是目前解决水资源稀缺的一项重要政策工具,亦是中国当前水资源管理改革的重要方向之一。基于中国水权交易所2016—2022年的交易数据对中国水权交易的总体概况、不同交易类型的水权交易特征进行统计描述性分析,并讨论其试点推广效应。研究表明:目前中国的水权交易以取水权交易为主,其次为区域水权交易,灌溉用水户水权交易渐趋活跃;区域水权交易主要表现为用水总量指标在区域间的重新配置,取水权交易主要表现为行业间的取水权交易,而灌溉用水户水权交易主要表现为行业内的水权交易;政府在水权交易中发挥了重要作用,随着水权交易的发展,参与主体开始出现多元化,更多的用水户开始进入水市场;中国的水权交易试点具有一定的推广效应,不仅仅表现为“量”的增多,还表现在交易方式上的创新。中国水权交易未来的发展空间在于不断创新水权交易方式并激励更多的用水户参与水权交易,需要因地制宜推进水权改革,加快推动初始水权的分配与确权工作;同时,还需要进一步完善水资源计量与监控体系,并积极推动水权交易法规制度建设,进一步推进水权交易市场的发展。     

Climate,carbon, civil war and flexible boundaries: Sudan's contested landscape

The confluence of climate change, oil development, farmer–nomad interaction, and civil war has given rise to serious contestation over land and water resources in the heart of Sudan. Here we report on direct involvement in the very difficult and protracted efforts to resolve these land-use conflicts. Repeated efforts to define and implement “hard demarcation” of boundaries in agroecological regions characterized by great temporal variability across space have been unsuccessful for many reasons. In semi-arid and savanna environments, where nomads share the use of land with sedentary communities, boundary disputes are minimized by the existence of flexible demarcations. Flexible boundaries are identifiable but subject to change in response to negotiation and agreement among resource users. It seems that the struggle is always over “rights” to particular areas of land. But it is necessary to understand the distinction between interests and rights. Each individual – and each group – has interests that they will seek to protect and, very often, enhance. But the conversion of interests into rights is a more difficult matter. As long as the need to deal with risk and uncertainty dominate livelihood strategies, flexible adaptation rather than rigid boundaries remains the optimal strategy in agro-pastoral economies.     

农用水权期权交易的触发机制研究

目的 农用水权期权交易作为一种创新的水权交易模式,是金融助力绿色发展的新渠道。探究农用水权期权交易的触发条件及驱动因素,推动水期权交易模式应用于实践,是建设全国统一的用水权交易市场的重要内容。方法 文章基于农用水权期权交易触发这一新视角,构建农业用水者、工业用水者、政府管理部门以及金融机构四方演化博弈模型,运用复制动态方程和Lyapunov第一法则定性研究各博弈主体策略选择的稳定性及系统中可能存在的稳定均衡点,并利用Matlab2018b仿真分析关键要素对整体系统演化的影响。结果 农用水权期权费稍高定价、金融机构降低交易成本、政府管理部门公信力损失的提升、加大对金融机构经济补贴,会增加农业用水者、工业用水者、政府管理部门以及金融机构参与农用水权期权交易的概率。结论 农用水权期权交易的触发需要发挥政府职能,突破门槛效应。首先,通过对金融机构的经济补贴,激励金融机构选择创新金融业务;其次,金融机构发挥中介作用,通过合理定价农用水权期权费及降低交易成本的路径,触发农业用水者和工业用水者选择农用水权期权交易;此外,公信力损失会进一步增强对政府管理部门的约束力,最终实现农用水权期权交易触发的良性循环。     

塔里木河流域水权配置的历史、现在和未来

根据塔河实际和水权的动态变化特性,将塔河流域水权的演变分成历史水权、现在水权与未来水权;着重分析历史水权的形成,阐述目前塔河流域水权分配的原则、层次和方法。基于塔河流域干旱缺水的特点,在新疆北水南调工程实施前,新增水权较为困难,认为通过水权流转将成为未来水权配置的主要方式。     

地下水可交易水权制度框架及其作用研究

为解决地下水超采与浪费问题,研究在地下水管理中引入可交易水权制度,认为通过地下水水权交易,可以满足新进入者用水需求,有效地控制整个区域的地下水可开采总量。通过用水户之间的水权交易,可促进地下水资源在各用水主体间优化配置。为保障这一制度的运行,建议建立地下水可交易水权制度组织保障体系及法律保障体系。     

关于水权概念探讨

针对目前在水权研究中关于水权概念的多种解释，通过辩析，提出了新的水权观：水权不是水的所有权，而是水资源利用者按照法律的规定或约定从水体中获取水资源并使用的权利，是取水权和使用权的统一。     

基于博弈论的城市水源地水资源分配模式和相关政策分析

应用博弈论的方法,探讨水源地、城市及用水者等相关利益主体在不同决策模式下的行为方式,分析了“用水者各自决策”“城市政府主导分配”“市场交易”和“政府调控下的市场配置”4种水源地水资源分配模式,认为“政府调控下的市场配置”是相对最优模式。探讨了跨境水源地权利保护机制、用水总量控制政策背景下的水源地水资源分配、水源地水权交易和生态补偿等相关政策问题,并提出相关政策建议。     

Transboundary water management Game‐theoretic lessons for projects on the US–Mexico border⋆

Of the twelve million people who live within 100 km of the US–Mexico border, 90 percent are clustered in transboundary sister cities that share common water sources and pollution problems. New institutions created to address environmental concerns over NAFTA offer the promise of greater financial and technical assistance for water management in border cities. This paper reviews US–Mexico border water issues and institutions. Using insights from game theory, it draws policy lessons for institutions funding border water projects. We examine how the design of assistance programs, technical support, and pre‐existing water rights and regulations affect project outcomes. The diversity and geographic dispersion of water conflicts suggests potential for applying the interconnected game approach to US‐Mexico water negotiations.     

Value of moving from central planning to a market system: lessons from the Israeli water sector

This paper explores the implications of the transformation of the system of water resources allocation to the agricultural sector in Israel from a one in which allotments are allocated to the different users without any permission to trade with water rights. A mathematical planning model is used for the entire Israeli agricultural sector, in which an ‘optimal’ allocation of the water resources is found and compared to the existing one. The results of the model are used in order to gain insight into the shadow price of the different water bodies in Israel (about eight). These prices can then be used to grant property rights to the water users themselves in order to guarantee rational behavior of water use, since now one can sell their rights at the source itself. The implication is clear with regard to any possible movement towards a market system in any other sector. From the dual prices of the primal problem we can forecast the equilibrium prices and their implications for the different users. The central government does not have to interfere with the market mechanism because, as will be shown, every farmer has the option to sell his right or to use it. As participation in the market is voluntary, every farmer makes a decision that is both individually and socially rational. However, in moving from a central planning allocation to a market mechanism, the government has another task, which is to grant the property rights in order for the market to begin to evolve. It is not guaranteed that under any initial allocation a decentralization of the system will benefit all the regions but at least part of the problem is to be resolved between the regions themselves. As the results shows, there is a potential budgetary benefit of 28 million dollars when capital cost is not included and 64 million dollars when they are included.     

Valuing options for reserve water in the Fitzroy Basin*

Option values may be an important component of non‐use values when development options for environmental assets are considered. These are values that the community might hold for maintaining options to make future choices about allocating resources. However, option values are very difficult to define, at both theoretical and practical levels, and there has been a retreat over the past decade to the more inclusive concept of option prices. In the present paper, estimates of option values are reported for retaining unallocated water in reserve rather than using it for current development. The use of option values rather than option prices is justified on the basis that the focus is on non‐use values, and demand and supply uncertainties have been minimised. These values have been assessed through a series of nine choice modelling surveys that have been conducted over a 3‐year period in the Fitzroy River Basin in central Queensland. The results are then extrapolated to the case study areas within the basin to assess whether unallocated water should be held in reserve or used for development.     

陕北能源基地水权初始分配与动态调整机制研究——以秃尾河流域为例

通过分析陕北能源重化工基地的经济发展和水资源概况,建立水权基本制度框架。针对微观层面用水单位动态变化的特征,重点探讨在初始水权分配的基础上,如何建立完善的水权动态分配机制,对用水单位的用水进行有效的监督、审查、奖惩和调整,实现水资源的高效利用,促进能源经济的发展。对秃尾河流域锦界工业园区的水权分配进行实例分析与计算。     

Bringing competition to urban water supply*

This paper proposes a market‐based reform that would introduce competition into the provision of urban water. This proposal calls for a decoupling of infrastructure control and ownership of water whereby the property rights to water would be transferred to private hands. The proposal involves periodically allocation (e.g. by auction) of existing water stock held in urban catchments to virtual suppliers who then compete in providing bulk water. This change when coupled with effective third party access and retail competition would lead to a competitive market for the provision of urban water. The approach aims to address concerns over inefficient pricing and infrastructure provision under the current arrangement.     

Water rights for variable supplies*

The relative merits of different systems of property rights to allocate water among different extractive uses are evaluated for the case where variability of supply is important. Three systems of property rights are considered. In the first, variable supply is dealt with through the use of water entitlements defined as shares of the total quantity available. In the second, there are two types of water entitlements, one for water with a high security of supply and the other a lower security right for the residual supply. The third is a system of entitlements specified as state‐contingent claims. With zero transaction costs, all systems are efficient. In the realistic situation where transaction costs matter, the system based on state‐contingent claims is globally optimal, and the system with high‐security and lower security entitlements is preferable to the system with share entitlements.     

Spot water markets and risk in water supply

Water availability patterns in semiarid regions are typically extremely variable. Even in basins with a highly developed infrastructure, users are subject to unreliable water supplies, incurring substantial economic losses during periods of scarcity. More flexible instruments, such as voluntary exchanges of water among users, can help users to reduce risk exposure. This article looks at the effects of spot water markets on the economic risk caused by water availability variations. Our theoretical and empirical risk analyses are based on the random profits of water users. Profit probability density functions are formally and graphically characterized for both water sellers and buyers under several possible market outcomes. We conclude from this analysis that, where water supply is stochastic, water markets unambiguously reduce both parties' risk exposure. The empirical study is conducted on an irrigation district in the Guadalquivir Valley (Southern Spain), where there is a high probability of periods of extreme water scarcity. Water demand functions for the district representative irrigators and a spatial equilibrium model are used to simulate market exchanges and equilibrium. This programming model is combined with statistical simulation techniques. We show that the profit probability distribution of a representative irrigator is modified if water exchanges are authorized, leading to risk reductions. Results also indicate that if the market were extended to several districts and users that are subject to varying hydrological risk exposure, extremely low‐profit events would be less likely to occur. In sum, we show that exchanging water in annual spot markets can reduce farmers' economic vulnerability caused by water supply variability across irrigation seasons. These results support the water policy reform carried out in Spain in 1999 to allow for voluntary water exchanges among right holders.     

中国灌溉农业发展——问题与挑战

中国灌溉农业发展面临的主要问题是农业水资源利用的低效率，表现为短缺与浪费并存。指出干旱缺水是中国粮食产量波动的主要原因，阐述水资源产权模糊、水价偏低、水工程设施产权模糊、分散的水行政管理以及农民用水过程中自主管理组织的缺乏是中国灌溉农业水资源利用效率低下的成因。对此，提出构造实施资源水利的制度环境、完善水资源管理制度、完善水资源政策、促进灌区水市场发展等提高灌溉管理效率的措施是未来中国灌溉农业发展的核心问题。     

Achieving environmental flows where buyback is constrained

Theory suggests that the development of common property increases national welfare, and consistent with this thinking Australia's Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) Plan uses a common property approach to recover environmental water rights in the national interest. Two water recovery instruments are used: purchasing water rights (buyback) from farmers, and saving water by subsidising irrigator adoption of technically efficient technology. A moratorium on buyback has focused environmental recovery on subsidised technically efficient technology adoption. Economists argue that national welfare is maximised via buyback and highlight the limitations of efficiency savings to recover sufficient environmental water. A risk is that water recovery targets may be reduced in future, limiting welfare gains from water reform. This article evaluates possible welfare trade‐offs surrounding environmental water recovery outcomes where arbitrary limits on buyback are imposed. Results suggest that, on average, strategies which attempt to obtain >1500 gigalitres (GL) of water from on‐farm efficiency investments will only provide sufficient resources to meet environmental objectives in very wet states of nature. We conclude that reliance on technically efficient irrigation infrastructure is less economically efficient relative to water buyback. Importantly, the transformation of MDB irrigation will significantly constrain irrigators' future capacity to adapt to climate change.     

Forty years of irrigation development and reform in China

This study reviews 40 years of irrigation development in China including the transformation of the institutional and incentive structures in irrigation management. After rural reforms in the 1970s, irrigation investments slowed until the late 1990s. In North China, farmers became major investors in groundwater irrigation, leading to property rights’ transfer of tube wells from collective to private ownership. Despite positive effects in cropping patterns, farmer income and development of groundwater markets, privatisation has accelerated groundwater table deterioration. Since the middle of 1990s, Water User Associations have replaced village collective management of surface irrigation. This approach was adopted by most provinces by early 2001 with mixed results; only institutions with water‐saving incentives realised efficient irrigation. The Government is reforming water price policies to provide water‐saving incentives to farmers while not hurting their income. While China has focused on water rights and markets, and despite regulations and pilot projects, full implementation of water rights has been slow. Research reveals greater policy scope for expanding irrigation technologies that generate real water saving to rural areas. Given pressure associated with water scarcity and concern for food security, further effective reforms in irrigation and policy incentives are expected. The Government has also initiated some pilot projects to resolve increasing water scarcity problems through adjusting agricultural production activities.     

Repurchase of renewal rights: a policy option for the National Water Initiative*

Management of the Murray–Darling river system involves a large number of users with imprecisely defined rights, and an aggregate rate of resource use that is environmentally unsustainable. One possible policy response is to make formal or informal contracts with users, under which users receive current benefits in return for a commitment to forgo usage rights in future. In this paper, this issue is explored with specific reference to the possibility of repurchasing the renewal rights for irrigation licenses.     

小农水体制机制改革举措探讨——以重庆云阳为例

[目的]解决重庆云阳小农水存在的无人管护、运作效率低下导致工程性缺水等问题,探寻管护模式、工程规模与管护效率之间的关系。[方法]文章对小农水产权制度改革与管护机制创新试点重庆云阳县进行了实地调研,在此基础上运用DEA分析方法和问卷方法探究了堰塘工程规模和运行效率与管护的关系。[结果]私有化管护模式要比集体管护效率高,并且规模较大的工程易私有化,分析结果符合实地调研结果。同时指出试点所做的举措与背后的原因,并给出适当的改革建议。[结论]提出改革需进一步引入市场机制,进一步放开堰塘的经营权与收益权,对于小规模集体管护的堰塘及规模大的个人或联户无能力经营的堰塘,由用水者协会管理。该文对重庆乃至处于西南山丘区的小农水管护模式的改革研究具有一定指导意义,也为其他区域的小农水体制机制改革的理论研究提供一定参考与借鉴。