The water footprint of coffee and tea consumption in the Netherlands

A cup of coffee or tea in our hand means manifold consumption of water at the production location. The objective of this study is to assess the global water footprint of the Dutch society in relation to its coffee and tea consumption. The calculation is carried out based on the crop water requirements in the major coffee and tea exporting countries and the water requirements in the subsequent processing steps. In total, the world population requires about 140 billion cubic metres of water per year in order to be able to drink coffee and tea. The standard cup of coffee and tea in the Netherlands costs about 140 l and 34 l of water respectively. The largest portions of these volumes are attributable to growing the plants. The Dutch people account for 2.4% of the world coffee consumption. The total water footprint of Dutch coffee and tea consumption amounts to 2.7 billion cubic metres of water per year (37% of the annual Meuse runoff). The water needed to drink coffee or tea in the Netherlands is not Dutch water. The most important sources for the Dutch coffee are Brazil and Colombia and for the Dutch tea Indonesia, China and Sri Lanka. The major volume of water to grow the coffee plant comes from rainwater. For the overall water need in coffee production, it makes hardly any difference whether the dry or wet production process is applied, because the water used in the wet production process is a very small fraction (0.34%) of the water used to grow the coffee plant. However, the impact of this relatively small amount of water is often significant. First, it is blue water (abstracted from surface and ground water), which is sometimes scarcely available. Second, the wastewater generated in the wet production process is often heavily polluted.     

虚拟水及其在缓解区域水资源短缺中的应用研究

虚拟水是指生产商品和服务所需要的水资源数量。虚拟水战略是指贫水国家或地区通过贸易的方式从富水国家或地区购买水密集型农产品(粮食)来获得本地区水和粮食的安全。本文在综述前人对虚拟水研究的基础上,计算了2002年甘肃省及不同地区主要农产品虚拟水含量,并对甘肃省加强虚拟水贸易的战略进行了探讨。     

The blue, green and grey water footprint of rice from production and consumption perspectives

The paper makes a global assessment of the green, blue and grey water footprint of rice, using a higher spatial resolution and local data on actual irrigation. The national water footprint of rice production and consumption is estimated using international trade and domestic production data. The global water footprint of rice production is 784 km³/year with an average of 1325 m³/t which is 48% green, 44% blue, and 8% grey. There is also 1025 m³/t of percolation in rice production. The ratio of green to blue water varies greatly over time and space. In India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and the Philippines, the green water fraction is substantially larger than the blue one, whereas in the USA and Pakistan the blue water footprint is 4 times more than the green component. The virtual water flows related to international rice trade was 31 km³/year. The consumption of rice products in the EU27 is responsible for the annual evaporation of 2279 Mm³ of water and polluted return flows of 178 Mm³ around the globe, mainly in India, Thailand, the USA and Pakistan. The water footprint of rice consumption creates relatively low stress on the water resources in India compared to that in the USA and Pakistan.     

Agricultural impacts on water quality and implications for virtual water trading decisions

Research on the flow of virtual water associated with agricultural crop production and trade has focussed almost entirely on water quantity. It is pertinent to consider and quantify the opportunity costs in terms of reduced water quality associated with crop production. This paper investigates the impacts of water quality on virtual water trading by creating a proxy for water quality impacts by calculating the amount of water required to dilute nonpoint-source agrochemical inputs to relevant water quality guideline values. The quantity of water required for dilution of five agrochemicals (two nutrients; nitrogen and phosphorus and three insecticides; azinphos-methyl, chlorpyrifos and endosulfan) was estimated for five crops in South Africa (maize, wheat, sugar cane, citrus and cotton) and compared to consumption of irrigation water (blue water) and rainfall (green water) for the same crops. Results indicate that the volume of water required for dilution is similar to the total sum of green and blue water required for crop production, but significantly greater than blue water use (irrigation use). For all crops phosphorus losses require greater amounts of water for dilution than for nitrogen, while pesticides result in the greatest water quality use. Estimates of water quality use are based on assumptions for a number of input variables (i.e. fertilizer application rates, percentage loss of agrochemicals from cropped areas). A Monte Carlo analysis (5000 iterations) was run to randomly select input variables from within defined ranges. Water quality use was calculated and expressed as a factor of blue water use. For all crops the average factor indicated that the volume of water required for dilution of all agrochemicals was greater than that required for irrigation. The results of this study clearly indicate that the impacts of agriculture on water quality need to be considered in virtual water trading scenarios. The incorporation of a method to predict impacts on water quality provides a comparative tool which generates a more holistic frame of reference for decision making with regard to impacts on the water resource and virtual water trading.     

The external water footprint of the Netherlands: Geographically-explicit quantification and impact assessment

This study quantifies the external water footprint of the Netherlands by partner country and import product and assesses the impact of this footprint by contrasting the geographically-explicit water footprint with water scarcity in the different parts of the world. The total water footprint of the Netherlands is estimated to be about 2300 m³/year/cap, of which 67% relates to the consumption of agricultural goods, 31% to the consumption of industrial goods, and 2% to domestic water use. The Dutch water footprint related to the consumption of agricultural goods, is composed as follows: 46% related to livestock products; 17% oil crops and oil from oil crops; 12% coffee, tea, cocoa and tobacco; 8% cereals and beer; 6% cotton products; 5% fruits; and 6% other agricultural products. About 11% of the water footprint of the Netherlands is internal and 89% is external. Only 44% of virtual-water import relates to products consumed in the Netherlands, thus constituting the external water footprint. For agricultural products this is 40% and for industrial products this is 60%. The remaining 56% of the virtual-water import to the Netherlands is re-exported. The impact of the external water footprint of Dutch consumers is highest in countries that experience serious water scarcity. Based on indicators for water scarcity the following eight countries have been identified as most seriously affected: China; India; Spain; Turkey; Pakistan; Sudan; South Africa; and Mexico. This study shows that Dutch consumption implies the use of water resources throughout the world, with significant impacts in water-scarce regions.     

Are virtual water “flows” in Spanish grain trade consistent with relative water scarcity?

Virtual water adds a new dimension to international trade, and brings along a new perspective about water scarcity and water resource management. Most virtual water literature has focused on quantifying virtual water “flows” and on its application to ensure water and food security. Nevertheless, the analysis of the potential gains from international trade, at least from a water resources perspective, needs to take into account both spatial and temporal variations of blue (groundwater and stream flow) and green (soil moisture) water, as well as the socioeconomic and policy conditions. This paper evaluates whether Spanish international trade with grains is consistent with relative water scarcity. For this purpose, the study estimates the volume and economic value of virtual water “flow” through international grain trade for the period 1997-2005, which includes 3 years with different rainfall levels. The calculations show that Spain is a net virtual water “importer” through international grain trade. The volume of net virtual water “imports” amounts to 3420, 4383 and 8415 million m³ in wet (1997), medium (1999) and dry (2005) years, respectively. Valuing blue water at its shadow price or scarcity value, blue water “exports” oscillate between 0.7 and 34.2 million Euros for a wet and dry year, respectively. Overall, grain trade is apparently consistent with relative water scarcity as net imports increase in dry years. However, the evolution of grain exports, expressed as a variation in quantity and volume, does not match the variations in resource scarcity. A disaggregated crop analysis reveals that there are other factors, such as quality, product specialization or the demand for a standardized product, which also influence trade decisions and are not included in the notion of virtual water. These facts, among others, can therefore create potential distortions in the application of virtual water to the analysis of specific trade patterns. Nevertheless, from a water resources perspective, virtual water can bring important insights across countries for improving water and land management globally, fostering adaptation strategies to climate change and to transboundary resource management.     

农产品绿色技术壁垒形成的政治经济学原因探究

近年来，绿色技术壁垒问题正越来越引起人们的关注。一些发达国家以保护生态环境、保护人类、动植物生命和健康为由制定复杂苛刻的环境保护措施，对国际贸易造成了不必要的障碍。因为大部分农产品和食品的出口限制主要以保护环境和人类健康为由，如检测出进口农产品有毒成分残留超标，含有已禁用的农药和化学药品等，所以农产品贸易受绿色技术壁垒的影响更为严重。本文尝试从政治经济学的角度深刻分析农产品遭遇绿色技术壁垒的原因。     

东北干旱地区发展现代高水效农业的路径

东北地区在我国粮食生产和调配方面发挥着举足轻重的作用。国务院常务会议通过《吉林省增产百亿斤商品粮能力建设总体规划》,标志着东北地区成为保障国家粮食安全的重要增量因素。然而,东北地区水资源占有量又与其粮食主产区的地位和需要极不相称,以占全国9%的农业用水创造了全国16%的粮食产出。靠天吃饭、干旱缺水已成为东北农业生产的最大威胁。应当通过促进农艺抗旱节水措施的应用、加强农业用水服务管理的效率、不失时机地推进种植结构的调整等渠道,突破水资源瓶颈,发展现代高水效农业。     

A dynamic analysis of water footprint of Jinghe River basin

Water footprint in a region is defined as the volume of water needed for the production of goods and services consumed by the local people, Ecosystem services are a kind of important services, so ecological water use is one necessary component in water footprint. Water footprint is divided into green water footprint and blue water footprint but the former one is often ignored.In this paper waterJootprint includes blue water needed by agricultural irrigation, industrial and domestic water demand, and green water needed by crops, economic forests, livestock prochtcts, forestlalands and grasslands. The study calculates the footprint of the Jinghe River basin in 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2005 with quarto methods. Results of research show that water footprints reached 164.1 ×10^8m3, 175. 69 ×10^8m3 and 178. 45 ×10^8m3 respectively in 1990, 1995 and 2000 including that of ecological water use, but reached 77.68×10^8m3, 94.24×10^8m3, 92.92×10^8m3 and 111.36 ×10^8m3 respectively excluding that of ecological water use. Green water.footprint is much more than blue water footprint; thereby, green water plays an important role in economic development and ecological construction The dynamic change of water footprints shows that blue water use increases rapidly and that the ecological water use is occupied by economie and domestic water use. The change also shows that water use is transferred from primary industry to secondary industry In primary industry, it is transferred from crops farming to forestry, and animal agriculture. The factors impelling the change include development anticipation on econonomy; government policies, readjustment of the industrial structure, population growth, the raise of urbanization level, and structurul change of consumption, low level of waler-saving and poor ability of waste water treatment.With blue water use per unit, green water use per unit, blue water use structure and green water use structure, we analyzed the difference of the six ecologieal function districts of the Jinghe River     

全要素网络下技农贸一体化与“互联网+农业”可持续发展

转型升级与可持续发展是我国现代农业发展的战略目标。从农业生产中的全要素网络理论模型构建入手,分析全要素网络与技农贸一体化之间的关系,提出3种技农贸一体化模式,即“公司+农户”模式、家庭农场模式及农业电商模式,并对3种模式下要素整合能力进行比较分析。整合互联网技术与可持续发展理念,提出“互联网+农业”发展模式,并结合全要素网络理论,归纳出“互联网+农业”可持续发展的4条路径。最后,以“供销e家”为案例,阐述其全要素网络架构和技农贸一体化道路,并说明其对“互联网+农业”可持续发展的启示价值。研究结论对于探索中国农业现代化发展的本质、关系、规律及途径具有重要的理论意义和现实指导价值。     

The water footprint of energy from biomass: A quantitative assessment and consequences of an increasing share of bio-energy in energy supply

This paper assesses the water footprint (WF) of different primary energy carriers derived from biomass expressed as the amount of water consumed to produce a unit of energy (m³/GJ). The paper observes large differences among the WFs for specific types of primary bio-energy carriers. The WF depends on crop type, agricultural production system and climate. The WF of average bio-energy carriers grown in the Netherlands is 24 m³/GJ, in the US 58 m³/GJ, in Brazil 61 m³/GJ, and in Zimbabwe 143 m³/GJ. The WF of bio-energy is much larger than the WF of fossil energy. For the fossil energy carriers, the WF increases in the following order: uranium (0.1 m³/GJ), natural gas (0.1 m³/GJ), coal (0.2 m³/GJ), and finally crude oil (1.1 m³/GJ). Renewable energy carriers show large differences in their WF. The WF for wind energy is negligible, for solar thermal energy 0.3 m³/GJ, but for hydropower 22 m³/GJ. Based on the average per capita energy use in western societies (100 GJ/capita/year), a mix from coal, crude oil, natural gas and uranium requires about 35 m³/capita/year. If the same amount of energy is generated through the growth of biomass in a high productive agricultural system, as applied in the Netherlands, the WF is 2420 m³. The WF of biomass is 70 to 400 times larger than the WF of the other primary energy carriers (excluding hydropower). The trend towards larger energy use in combination with an increasing contribution of energy from biomass will enlarge the need for fresh water. This causes competition with other claims, such as water for food.     

我国省域水资源的可持续利用初探*——以辽宁山东等省供水量指标为基础数据

水资源承载力的确定是经济可持续发展决策的前提。本文通过相对水资源承载力的动态分析方法,透析辽宁、山东等省份水资源短缺和超负载的现状,揭示可控因子,进而提出水资源可持续利用的对策。     

Climate change impacts on irrigation water requirements: Effects of mitigation, 1990–2080

Potential changes in global and regional agricultural water demand for irrigation were investigated within a new socio-economic scenario, A2r, developed at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) with and without climate change, with and without mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Water deficits of crops were developed with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)–IIASA Agro-ecological Zone model, based on daily water balances at 0.5° latitude × 0.5° longitude and then aggregated to regions and the globe. Future regional and global irrigation water requirements were computed as a function of both projected irrigated land and climate change and simulations were performed from 1990 to 2080. Future trends for extents of irrigated land, irrigation water use, and withdrawals were computed, with specific attention given to the implications of climate change mitigation. Renewable water-resource availability was estimated under current and future climate conditions. Results suggest that mitigation of climate change may have significant positive effects compared with unmitigated climate change. Specifically, mitigation reduced the impacts of climate change on agricultural water requirements by about 40%, or 125–160 billion m³ (Gm³) compared with unmitigated climate. Simple estimates of future changes in irrigation efficiency and water costs suggest that by 2080 mitigation may translate into annual cost reductions of about 10 billion US$.     

Water allocation by social choice rules: The case of sequential rules

This paper considers the problem of allocating shares of irrigation water to different agricultural agents with single-peaked preferences with respect to their own shares. We define two different sequential allocation rules that respect the asymmetry between the agents and maintain the properties of Pareto efficiency and strategy-proofness, and we design a specific algorithm to apply these rules. The results of the empirical application of these rules for the case of an irrigated area located in the Ebro Basin (Spain) show that the designed sequential rules are able to substantially improve the efficiency of the currently applied proportional rule in context of severe scarcity of water and/or high administrative water prices.     

Agent-based modeling of the diffusion of environmental innovations — An empirical approach

This paper presents an agent-based model of the diffusion of water-saving innovations. The empirical foundation of this model is a study, which was carried out for that specific purpose. As an example case, the diffusion of three water-related innovations in Southern Germany was chosen. The model represents a real geographic area and simulates the diffusion of showerheads, toilet flushes, and rain-harvesting systems. Agents are households of certain lifestyles, as represented by the Sinus-Milieus® from commercial marketing. Agents use two different kinds of decision rules to decide upon adoption or rejection of the modeled innovations: A cognitively demanding deliberate decision rule and a very simple decision heuristic. Thus, the model integrates concepts of bounded rationality. The overall framework for decision-making is the Theory of Planned Behavior, which has been elaborated using innovation characteristics from diffusion research. The model was calibrated with empirical data stemming from a questionnaire survey and validated against independent data. Scenarios for the nearer future show that water-saving innovations will diffuse even without further promotion, and different promotion strategies that relate specifically to both innovations and lifestyles can be pointed out.