Measuring physical access to ‘healthy foods’ in areas of social deprivation: a case study in Cardiff

This paper examines some characteristics of ‘food deserts’– areas of social deprivation which have poor physical access to food shopping – in a large British city, Cardiff. The stereotype of the ‘food desert’ is critically examined, emphasizing the importance attached by residents of such areas to easy access to food shopping, especially in multiple supermarkets. The case study of Cardiff briefly discusses the identification of potential ‘food deserts’, and then examines the structures of ‘healthy food’ availability and prices in four areas of the city (two in the inner city, two in the outer city) where physical access to large multiple supermarkets is poor. The analysis shows that the local shops in these areas cannot compete generally with large supermarkets on either availability of items or their prices, but that the local shops in the inner city areas are rather more competitive than those in the outer areas. Implications for research and policy formulation are finally discussed.     

Japanese Supermarket Chains and Labour Costs- Part 1:

Japan is often alleged to have an outdated and inefficient retail system. Detailed studies are needed to underpin these allegations. In this paper we do this for the retail sector of supermarkets. We study 18 Japanese supermarket chain store corporations. Characteristics of Japanese supermarkets are given in an historic overview. A labour cost relationship is estimated with data of 918 establishments. This relationship has already been established, tested and confirmed in many studies on European retailing. In part 1, we show that Japanese chain store corporations diversify in assortment composition as well as in service level. In part 2, labour costs of Japanese supermarkets are studies in more detail. We find statistical support for higher labour costs by more use of part-time employees, higher service level and village based stores. Furthermore, we compare labour costs of Japanese supermarkets with labour costs of French variety stores, supermarkets and hypermarkets. We find no differences in labour costs between Japan and France.     

Do the Poor Pay More for Food? An Analysis of Grocery Store Availability and Food Price Disparities

Do the poor pay more for food? To answer this question, this study was conducted to provide an empirical analysis of grocery store access and prices across inner city and suburban communities within the Minneapolis and St. Paul metropolitan area. The comparison among different types of grocers and geographic areas is drawn from a survey of approximately fifty grocery items for fifty-five stores. Results indicate that the poor pay only slightly more in the Twin Cities grocery market. More significantly, those who shop in non-chain stores pay a significant premium, and the poor have less access to chain stores. This study reveals that the biggest factor contributing to higher grocery costs in poor neighborhoods is that large chain stores, where prices tend to be lower, are not located in these neighborhoods.     

中国实体零售企业运营效率及其影响因素研究——基于随机前沿分析方法

近年来，零售产业发生较大变化，实体零售企业纷纷关闭门店收缩经营，探讨新时期实体零售企业运营效率水平及其影响因素具有现实意义。文章利用2007—2016年实体零售企业门店调查问卷数据，采用随机生产前沿和随机成本前沿等不同模型，检验营业面积和员工数量两种投入要素情况下的零售企业生产函数特征，例如规模报酬效应、产出弹性以及规模经济效应等，同时检验实体零售门店商圈竞争度、门店经营历史、商品周转天数、日交易量和客单价等因素对门店运营效率的影响效应。结果发现，我国实体零售企业处于规模报酬不变阶段，专卖店和百货店的运营效率较高，而超市和购物中心的运营效率较低；以及门店经营历史、日交易量和客单价对门店运营效率具有正向影响。最后针对实体零售企业门店经营决策提出管理建议。     

The influence of social capital on local retail patronage in an urban setting

Local retail stores are currently facing intense competition from both online retailers and large chain stores. An understanding of local retail store patronage (i.e., patronage of retail stores in one's own community) is essential to the survival and growth of local retailers. Drawing on Social Capital Theory, we theorize and show with store-level survey data the influence of social capital (community attachment and reciprocity) on local retail store patronage in a large urban setting. We find that the impact of social factors differs for residents within the community compared to those outside of the community. We also demonstrate the importance of social factors in comparison to non-social factors. These findings contribute to the literature by extending the impact of social capital on local retail store patronage beyond rural settings, providing insight into urban consumers' decision to patronize local retail stores, and highlighting the impact of community boundaries. These findings also generate practical recommendations for local merchants and stress the importance of building reciprocal relationships with local customers as well as varying communications across community boundaries.     

Intermediate Supermarkets in China

Abstract

Intermediate supermarket formats share characteristics of traditional food stores and of the modern supermarket. Because they represent steps on the evolutionary path towards the “complete” supermarket they offer an alternative to the dominant food retail modernization route involving the transplantation of the supermarket model.

The paper reports the findings of a study of these intermediate formats in Shanghai. We discuss the origins, structure and operation of these stores and evaluate their contribution to the food retail modernization process. Surprisingly, few of the operators of these stores were traditional food retailers. Most were state-owned companies and private entrepreneurs from outside the retail sector.

Lack of managerial and financial resources and inexperience led many to open these formats rather than the “complete” supermarket. The weakness of this subsector means that the main vehicle for food retail modernization in Shanghai will continue to be the supermarket chains. But because of limitations on the chain's expansion, they may enter into franchising arrangements with the best among these intermediate supermarkets. Finally, it is suggested that intermediate formats are likely to play a more important role in secondary cities, in towns and in rural areas in China.     

Supermarket access in the inner cities

One of the most pressing problems in urban America today is the serious shortage of supermarkets in many inner cities despite America’s abundant food supply and state-of-the-art food distribution system. Since the 1950s, numerous supermarket chains and independent grocers have departed low-income inner city neighborhoods. Consequently, inner cities have been left with smaller and less accessible stores that are generally unable to provide both the quality and variety of foods needed for a healthy population. In addition, these smaller stores are often unable to offer affordable prices to inner city households. Supermarket access in the inner cities is an important issue that has not been fully addressed by any sector. This paper attempts to reignite debate about the plight of inner city neighborhoods by discussing some of the critical issues, challenges and opportunities facing the development of supermarkets in poor urban neighborhoods.     

Double couponing: Pricing and consumer perspectives

Many supermarkets double manufacturer coupens. Are consumers' grocery bills lowered as a result? Our study of two double coupon supermarkets shows that for every ten cents of double-coupon value redeemed, the corresponding shelf price at a double coupon supermarket is higher by an estimated 3.5 cents compared to the price at other supermarkets. Given the higher shelf prices, the data also suggest that the majority of customers do not save money at double coupon stores, and adjust their shopping to account for the retail promotion.     

Supermarkets in China: the case of Shanghai

Supermarkets have established a visible presence in Shanghai with some 1,000 stores and an estimated 5 per cent of market share. Local chains dominate the sector but well-known international retailers are very active. Studies indicate that a large proportion of consumers regularly shop in supermarkets but they use them 'selectively', mostly for packaged and processed foods, and continue to purchase fresh food in traditional outlets. The author uses a variety of data types and a number of research methods to analyse supermarkets' penetration into Shanghai. A background discussion of the food retail system in Shanghai highlights the traditional formats, the local and foreign supermarket chains, and the independent supermarkets. The data from a consumer shopping behaviour study is then used to assess supermarkets' penetration. Supermarkets' fast penetration into Shanghai is surprising given the findings of earlier studies, which identified the existence of serious limitations on the format's penetration into less developed countries (LDCs). Consequently, the focus in the second part of the paper is on explaining the reasons for the success of supermarkets. The impact of the factors identified in the earlier studies as constraining supermarkets' advance were evaluated and it was found that in Shanghai three of these factors (consumers, traditional retailers and government) did not cause serious problems for supermarkets. Only the supply-side conditions negatively affected their operations. The Shanghai example highlights the need to update our thinking regarding the LDCs' food retail modernization process in a number of directions. First local supermarket chains, not foreign ones, drive the process. Second, supply-side factors, not the demand-side ones that were emphasized in earlier studies, pose the major difficulties. Third, this analysis affirms the importance of the 'selective' adoption phenomenon where LDC consumers who regularly shop in supermarkets continue to purchase fresh food in traditional outlets. The implications of this analysis for food retail modernization theory and for practice are discussed and the prospects for further development of the supermarket sector in Shanghai are assessed.     

商业银行与小额贷款公司合作模式探索

小额贷款公司相对商业银行而言,资金来源渠道较窄。而商业银行相对小额贷款公司而言,贷款条件较苛刻,独立经营小额贷款成本较高。商业银行和小额贷款公司可以在相互竞争的环境下更好地合作发展小额贷款业务,建立小额贷款批发机制,创新以外包零售业务方式、以资源共享为主和以技术输出为主的双赢的合作模式,为中小企业和"三农"提供更多贷款。     

Large format retailers: a French tradition despite reactions

French retailers have initiated large format stores: department stores in the middle of the 19th century and their variety stores; hypermarkets more than a century later. These large format retail stores induced reactions from the French government on several occasions. These reactions consisted in controlling new locations through specific committees. The impact of these reactions did not greatly affect the evolution of large format retail stores like hypermarkets. Regulations hurt variety stores more strongly when they were in competition with hypermarkets, because they were already declining. Otherwise, the hypermarket retail life cycle has not been affected despite some delays. Recent problems could mean the end of development and possibly of maturity stages for these large format retail stores.     

自动售货机:第三次零售业革命

作为一种新型商业形态和广告媒体,自动售货机从1999进入中国市场以来,受到了喜欢追逐时尚的年轻人的欢迎。大市场、大产业据统计,在世界上最大的自动售货市场——日本,已有560万台自动售货机,通过自动售货机出售的商品多达6000余种,年营业额可以达到7兆1122亿日元。每年,仅饮料的销售额就相当于1593亿元人民币。按人口计算,每23人就拥有1台自动售货机,平均每人在自动售货机上的消费达56000日元。在美国平均每40人拥有一台自动售货机,欧洲每60人一台。而目前国内的自动售卖机大约有7～8万台。根据国外发展经验,中国自动售货机专业委员会对中…     

中国消费者的购物价值研究:以零售经销店为切入点(英文)

本文旨在探讨中国消费者的购物价值。在利用定性研究所获得的购物价值维度的基础上,本文还采用量化研究来进一步评估消费者在两类零售经销店——百货商店和超型市场中的购物体验及相应的购物价值观。研究结果表明,中国消费者倾向于同时到上述两类零售经销店购物,并从中获得自我满足感和实现社会交往;同时,他们在百货商场获得更多的享乐性购物价值,而在超市里则获得更多的实用性购物价值。这些研究结果凸显了购物体验和购物价值对中国消费者的重要性。     

Store and store format loyalty measures based on budget allocation

In highly competitive environments, such as retail markets, characterized by a growing heterogeneity of demand and the proliferation of new retail formats, cross-shopping behavior between stores and formats is becoming increasingly common. This process makes customer loyalty a key strategic challenge for retailers that want to consolidate their position within the market. To contribute to the analysis and comprehension of this reality, the authors propose and assess different objective indicators of store loyalty, store format loyalty, and intra-format store loyalty based on budget allocation. Specifically, they analyze the role of retail format in observable loyalty patterns in a market. Through an empirical analysis of grocery purchase patterns of a sample of 580 Spanish households, the authors find that diverse objective loyalty indicators based on budget allocations provide very similar information from a practical point of view. They also find that consumers' regular use of various formats (specifically, supermarkets, hypermarkets, and discount stores) for their purchases explain observed disloyalty better than does purchasing in several stores within these formats. The observed patterns reveal that retail formats define differentiated store profiles that relate to the benefits sought in different purchase situations.     

Prices of Unpackaged and Packaged Foods

Prices of packaged and unpackaged items sold in the same retail out-let were compared in 19 northern California supermarkets. The magnitude of potential price savings depended upon the size and type of product purchased. Savings would most likely accrue to the purchaser of small rather than large quantities of unpackaged products. The future of unpackaged foods is linked to technical developments in sealed dispensers that limit customer access to the product.     

购物效用影响消费者对超市选择的实证研究

不同形态的超市,如大卖场、中型超市、便利店给消费者提供的购物效用具有较大的差别,超市消费者的购物效用影响其择店决策,而不同群体的消费者之间也具有显著的需求差别,超市可以据此制定竞争策略。     

Accessing healthy food: availability and price of a healthy food basket in Scotland

Access to healthy food and its marketing have been asserted as limitations on changing behaviour to improve diet. A retailer survey in Scotland is reported that considered availability and affordability of a basket of indicator healthy food items, termed the Healthy Eating Indicator Shopping Basket (HEISB). It comprised 35 items drawn from 5 major food groups. A census of HEISB availability in 466 stores was undertaken in a sample of locations that varied on dimensions of urban-rural and affluent-deprived. Around half of the supermarkets surveyed stocked all the items. Availability of healthy food items was generally seen to be adequate but there were notable variations in availability for specific items. There were large variations in price for the HEISB items across the stores and the survey areas. The total HEISB median price varied by store type. Basket price tended to rise with deprivation with a caveat of the lowest prices in the most deprived areas. Accessibility to a range of healthy food depends more on the presence of medium and large stores than being in a deprived or affluent area.     

The International Activities of Japanese Retailers

Despite the upsurge of academic and commercial interest in the changes taking place in the retail sector within Japan, little has been published on the international activities of Japanese retailers. This paper illustrates the range and scale of activities.which have been undertaken by such companies. While Europe and America were favourite destinations up until the mid-1980s, most Japanese retailers have now refocused their expansion plans on Asia as the level of consumers' disposable income has risen and trade barriers have been lowered. At the same time, the early entrants into international markets, the development stores, have been joined by companies operating supermarkets, convenience stores, clothing stores, electrical outlets and so on. The paper considers the nature of these changes and the factors which have driven them.     

Effects of neighbourhood characteristics on store performance supermarkets versus hypermarkets

We investigate the impact of neighbourhood characteristics on the relative attractiveness of product categories within a store, with special attention for the differences between hypermarkets and supermarkets. We consider two questions. Firstly, is the impact of neighbourhood-specific factors on attractiveness of product categories smaller for hypermarkets than for supermarkets? Secondly, is there a difference in relative attractiveness of product categories between supermarkets and hypermarkets and to what extent is this difference dependent on kind of neighbourhood? For the impact of store and trading area characteristics on category and store performance, we use a framework that was originally presented in Campo et al. (J. Int. Res. Market 17 (2000) 225). Empirical application to national stores of a European retail chain confirms the differential impact of neighbourhood characteristics on supermarkets and hypermarkets. The research proves that geomarketing analysis can be useful for developing micromarketing strategies.     

Flatlined: Combatting the death of retail stores

The recent wave of retail bankruptcies as well as poor sales performance has resulted in a large number of store closings. Low sales in store-based retailers can also be attributed to the rapid growth of web-based retailers (largely, Amazon) as well as an excess of store space per capita in the U.S. as compared to other developed nations. Strategies to stem the decline of retail stores include: (1) utilizing omnichannel-based synergies among channels and devices to increase store sales; (2) making stores more attractive and engaging through personalization, interactivity, and a constantly changing environment; and (3) improving productivity through introducing small-size store formats and downsizing existing stores.