Commentary on Janet Landa's Paper

In her paper, Janet Landa argues that the key behind the success of the ethnically homogeneous Chinese middleman group (EHMG) is their highly developed in-group cooperation. She places the EHMG phenomenon within the framework of evolutionary biology by calling it 'a cultural transmission unit' subject to the influence of both genes and culture. Landa suggests that the individual members of the EHMG comprise the units of selection for EHMG groups much like the genes comprise the units of selection for individual organisms. However, evolution occurs through the differential survival and reproduction of individual organisms. In order to meet the criteria of biological group selection, it would have to be demonstrated that groups in competition with EHMGs had gone extinct. The fact that the EHMGs are simply faring better than their competitors is not evidence for group selection. The other reason biological group selection is not really applicable to EHMGs is that there are no physical/biological barriers to exogamous mating, and cultural barriers are intrinsically unstable.     

解析公司治理模式:跨文化视角

霍夫斯泰德的民族文化维度理论可以帮助我们解释英美、日德、东南亚三种公司治理模式形成的深层次原因。中国的民族文化特征决定了适应中国国情的公司治理模式应是家长式治理模式。由于公司治理背后存在着文化差异,中国企业在跨国并购中应注意文化兼容性问题。     

中国传统商人精神的现代性转换

我国正处于传统商人精神向现代商业精神转换的过渡阶段。本文对传统商人与现代企业家进行了深入比较,对中国传统商人精神进行梳理,并探讨了对其进行现代转换的5条途径:从个体的创业垂统到组织的创业垂统;从家族主义到社会责任;从人际诚信到制度诚信;从积累财富到运用财富;从重教好学到组织学习。     

Merchant internalization and tax evasion

Merchant internalization has been used to explain why merchants may accept high fees to accept card payments. However, merchants seem to be more resistant in some economic activities or countries; in particular, when the shadow economy is sizeable. Cash payments are usually associated with tax evasion, and therefore the analysis of card industry should take it in to consideration. This paper explores the role of tax evasion in the merchant internalization condition; first, considering it as exogenous, and then, as a strategic reason.     

Interethnic relations,informal trading networks,and social integration: imitation,habits, and social evolution

The ethnically homogeneous middleman groups (EHMGs), which are informal trading networks, are ubiquitous in less-developed economies where the legal infrastructure for contract enforcement is not well developed. This paper develops a formal model of social interaction among members of the EHMG as well as in more general situations in a multi-ethnic or multi-cultural society consisting of identifiable ethnic or linguistic groups. Behavioral patterns are transmitted between generations and altered via imitation in social contacts. The model demonstrates how different discriminatory behavioral patterns can evolve and persist over time. One result is that the trust between such groups can increase due to a higher frequency of inter-group contacts. In concluding the paper, we speculate about how the model can be expanded to include changes in legal structures, especially contract law. This could lead to an increase in the trust between the different groups.     

Merchant guilds,taxation and social capital

We develop a theory of the emergence of merchant guilds as an efficient mechanism to foster cooperation between merchants and rulers, building on the complementarity between merchant guilds’ ability to enforce monopoly over trade and their social capital. Unlike existing models, we focus on local merchant guilds, rather than alien guilds, accounting for the main observed features of their behavior, internal organization and relationship with rulers. Our model delivers novel predictions about the emergence, variation, functioning, and eventual decline of this highly successful historical form of network. Our theory reconciles previous explanations and the large body of historical evidence on medieval merchant guilds. In doing so, we also shed novel light on the role of the guilds’ social capital, and its importance for taxation, welfare, and the development of towns and their government in medieval Europe.     

Bounded governance within extended order: The Confucian advantage of synergy under generalized constitutional rules

A constitutional explanation of the economic dynamism of the East Asian Confucian economies is proposed. The main hypothesis is that the synergy between the extended order of generalized rules, first introduced by Western civilization, and the bounded governance of Confucian societies has produced a comparative cultural and institutional advantage for the five tigers in East Asia. As a pure form, the extended order, represented in Western society by a system of private property rights, a system of impersonal and generalized markets and a formal-rational system of law and administration, is far more efficient than the bounded governance of Confucian societies in the East Asia, which is characterized by the particularistic human relations and familistic, clannish, and other forms of personal ties and connections. Nevertheless, once a linkage to the extended order is established—overcoming the limits of personal exchange—Confucian ethics can support the bounded governance structures of clans, networks, communities, and familistic corporations that are effective in governing those complex tasks in which property rights are difficult to divide and allocate, individual performance is difficult to measure, and complete contract is either difficult to make or hard to enforce.     

家族企业治理模式的国际比较及其对中国的启示

美英两国在保留家族企业最终控制权的同时,有选择地将现代公司制度的优势融入家族企业,形成了比较成熟、规范的企业治理模式;日、德两国家族企业家族色彩浓厚,以保障相关者利益的思想与人本主义的融合为基础,是一种内部监控型模式;东南亚包括韩国、香港、台湾等国家或地区在儒家家族传统观念基础上,建立了以家族为代表的控股股东主权模式.比较分析三种模式的共异点,对我国家族企业的治理和发展可以得出诸多重要的启示.     

Ethnic Networks in FDI and the Impact of Institutional Development

Ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs are known for their active business networking practices, particularly in Southeast Asia. This paper empirically investigates the role of ethnic Chinese networks in promoting foreign direct investment (FDI). We further evaluate whether the effectiveness of networking activities are affected by the level of economic and institutional development of the source and the host countries. Using a standard gravity model, we find that ethnic Chinese networks are significant in facilitating cross‐border investment between countries. The strength of ethnic Chinese networks between country pairs, approximated by the product of the numbers of ethnic Chinese in both countries, is positively correlated with the cumulative amount of their reciprocal FDI. More importantly, this significant relationship is not limited to countries in Southeast Asia, but is applicable to other country pairs included in the study as well, regardless of whether the investment is originated from industrial countries or developing economies. Finally, the analysis finds no evidence that ethnic networks are only effective in countries where economic and legal institutions are under‐developed. Ethnic Chinese networks have played a significant role in promoting FDI to countries with a relatively higher bureaucratic quality, much more so than to countries with a lower bureaucratic quality.     

中国石油严峻的地缘形势与战略对策

为保障中国经济发展所需要的石油供应,必须稳定地取得国外的石油资源,但现实是,中国的石油地缘形势严 峻。中国石油地缘的战略对策是努力营造有利于中国石油安全的地缘战略环境:改善中美关系,开展石油外交,在东北亚与 日本、韩国合作,在东南亚加强战略投入,在南沙海域实行“搁置争议,共同开发”。     

Growth and convergence in South–South integration areas: An empirical analysis

Until recently, it has been argued in economic theory that regional integration and trade agreements among developing countries may achieve negative growth effects. This study tests empirically the effects of such South–South agreements on growth and convergence. All three world regions in question are considered: South America, Southeast Asia, and Sub‐Saharan Africa. A comprehensive panel data analysis is conducted that distinguishes between the problems of testing for stronger growth and accelerated convergence, respectively. The data indicate that the considered South–South agreements promote both.     

文化景观保护的环境哲学溯源

围绕社会主义生态文明建设之核心，从形而上的环 境哲学自然价值观以及哲学伦理学、政治学、社会学视角，分 析人类中心主义与非人类中心主义的环境立场，揭示生态环境 问题背后的价值根源及环境政策产生的政治、经济、社会基 础。总结了环境哲学与自然和文化遗产保护发展的关联性及其 4个阶段，呼吁增强中国哲学主体性自觉，立足中国国情、尊 重历史文脉，建立中国特色的文化景观保护体系。     

国家基础设施投资与区域发展战略耦合——一项抵御国际金融危机冲击的经济增长策略

为应对1997年东南亚金融危机冲击,我国政府把西部地区作为基础设施投资重点,取得了加快西部地区发展,同时刺激全国经济持续增长的成功经验。这证明,国家基础设施投资与区域发展战略耦合是一项值得重视的抵御国际金融危机冲击的经济增长策略。当前,为抵御新的国际金融危机冲击,我国政府实施了大规模的基础设施投资计划。国家宜把中部地区作为这轮基础设施投资的重点区域,以收到加快中部地区崛起步伐、营造区域热点、刺激全国经济持续增长的效果。 ?     

中国纺织业对外直接投资的区位视角分析

纺织业对外直接投资是我国“走出去”战略的重要组成部分。目前,我国纺织业已经具备大规模对外直接投资的基础。纺织业对外直接投资的一个关键问题是区位选择,因为区位选择的正确与否直接关系到纺织业对外直接投资的成败。本文在对我国纺织业加快对外直接投资的动因和基础进行分析后,指出我国纺织业在区位上应进行如下选择：将东南亚、南亚作为纺织业对外投资的重点区域;大力开拓非洲地区,尤其是北非和西非;重视东欧和独联体国家;投资与欧美等发达国家签订有优惠贸易协议的拉美国家;鼓励有实力的企业投资欧美日发达国家。     

Determinants of Taiwan's outward investment in Southeast Asia: Economic factors and institutional issues

This paper investigates the economic and institutional determinants of Taiwan's outward direct investment in six Southeast Asian countries from 1998 to 2017, applying the panel ARDL–Pooled Mean Group estimation. We specially examine the effects of institutional quality with five dimensions inclusively, using the Worldwide Governance Indicators. The results show the locational economic factors are the primary determinants in the long run. The tight and historic trading relation with Southeast Asia has a long-run positive effect. On the contrary, the institutional quality of the host countries has strong positive effects in both the long run and short run. Further, the paper displays the dynamics of this investment in the last 20 years. These results are important for Taiwan and Southeast Asia policy-makers in setting up the short-run and long-run policies to sustain their diversified economic growth.     

Optimal card payment systems

This paper presents a model of a card payment system to address the pricing and rules that govern such systems. It evaluates the social optimality of privately set interchange fees and the adoption of a rule by payment systems to prevent merchants surcharging for card transactions using two extremes of merchant pricing—monopolistic pricing and perfect competition. Both types of merchant pricing constrain the ability of card schemes to use interchange fees and the no-surcharge rule in anticompetitive ways, although for quite different reasons. The positive role of the no-surcharge rule in preventing excessive merchant surcharging is also highlighted.     

合作与发展：“湄公河案件”后中国与东南亚国家关系的走向

本文旨在通过“湄公河案件”发生后所映射出来的问题,分析影响中国与东南亚国家关系走向的主要因素,其中包括中国和东南亚国家经济发展的不平衡问题、安全合作机制缺失的问题以及“中国威胁论”和美国在东南亚地区的影响。针对这些问题,中国和东南亚将进一步寻求经济发展上的平衡以及加强在安全领域方面的合作,由此可以展望,全方位、深层次的合作将是中国与东南亚国家关系发展的总趋势。     

Confucian economics: how is Chinese thinking different?

The Chinese have their economics. Not yet acknowledged, it is contained in the Confucian thought. Called by me ‘Confucian economics’, it sharply differs from the Western ‘Liberal economics’. Individuals seek posterity through offspring, rather than ‘instant gratification’. Resources are not seen as scarce but as abundant. Rather than take resources from others, people work to make a living. The work ethics and not the profit margin is a key motive. Individuals work not for themselves but for their family. The family is a source of moral sentiment, understood as responsibility for others. This is why the main institution is family and not market. To Confucians, the key principle is equality, which precedes efficiency. Inequality upsets ‘social peace’, as a precondition for growth. Built on Liberal principles, the Western capitalist system is a market one. The Chinese system, which I call ‘Confucian system’, is also market-based. The former is a ‘free market’ animated by individuals, the latter is a ‘familial market’ built around households. Both approaches advocate ‘minimal state’, but for Liberals the state is a ‘night watchman’ to ensure the security of resources, while for Confucians, the state is a moral guide to enable social harmony. As a theory, Confucian economics is a form of ethics and the Liberal is not. China has never abandoned Confucianism. The recent reforms are not about rolling back the Soviet model to establish a capitalist system. Relying on Confucian economics, China is reviving Confucian system. Paradoxically, the ancient Confucian economics has become the engine of China’s modernity. This is a key reason for China’s ‘longest boom’. To extend it, China needs to refocus its policies from ‘capital formation’ to the ‘moral cultivation’, along the Confucian principles.     

儒家乐论与道德涵养刍议

儒家哲学从来都是生命的学问。＂乐＂作为儒家文明中重要的一支,也一直涵养着中国人的道德生命和精神生命。同时＂以乐化德＂,在具体实践中是有它的可操作性。用乐来涵养道德不仅符合现代人的认知方式,让人比较容易接受,而且这种潜移默化可以达到移风易俗的作用,形成悠久的良好社会风气。     

Agriculture and the Transition to the Market in Asia

This paper examines the role of agriculture in the transition from central planning to market-based economies in Asia through an analysis of the experience of countries in Southeast Asia, i.e., Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and Central Asia, i.e., Kazakstan and the Kyrgyz Republic. In Southeast Asia, reforms met with a very rapid and positive supply response in agriculture that helped to sustain the broader economy. In Central Asia, economic reforms have thus far failed to arrest a deep and widespread economic depression across all sectors, including agriculture. Focusing on the significant differences in the initial conditions and structure of agriculture, the reasons for this contrasting experience are analyzed. The likely prospects and the problems posed by the unfinished reform agenda are also examined.J. Comp. Econom.,October 1997,25(2), pp. 256–280. Asian Development Bank, Manila, 0980, Philippines.