Developing sustainable tourism through adaptive resource management: a case study of Machu Picchu,Peru

Machu Picchu, Peru, is recognized as a top international travel destination. Pressure from the approximately 900,000 tourists who annually visit the ancient Inca city threatens the ecological integrity, physical substance and cultural authenticity of the World Heritage Site and surrounding area, including the Inca Trail. Multiple organizations and agencies currently involved in the management of Machu Picchu have distinct agendas for the conservation and development of the city, and conflicts regarding public access, economic growth and cultural preservation are rampant. Attempts to establish carrying capacities have failed, with proposed daily visitor levels ranging from 800 to 4000. This paper explores the complex issues surrounding tourism at Machu Picchu and presents a potential solution: an adaptive management approach based on the UN World Tourism Organization's (UNWTO) sustainable tourism framework. This integrative strategy accounts for multiple perspectives and synthesizes disparate goals embraced by diverse stakeholders, including the Peruvian government, international conservation organizations, foreign tourists, private tour operators, regional authorities and indigenous communities. The focus on Machu Picchu as an adaptive management case study site outlines key steps leading to implementation, offering planning and policy implications for sustainability initiatives at numerous developing-world tourism destinations facing similar political and socio-economic challenges.     

World Heritage Site selection in sensitive areas: Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The legacy of UNESCO World Heritage (WH) designation is renowned and for that reason is subject to increased visitor arrivals. This research-based article examines the issues associated with the selection of WH sites in one among the most remote and sensitive environments of the world, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India (ANI). It explores the benefits of sustainable tourism development and conservation measures that the designation could bring to the ANI. The appropriate research methods adopted to consult a wide range of stakeholders are discussed while addressing the challenges facing the potential properties. This article was written from outside of the official WH designation process.     

World Heritage Listing and the Evolving Issues Related to Tourism and Heritage: Cases from Australia and New Zealand

The relationship between heritage and tourism at Word Heritage Sites is thought to be particularly problematic. Yet, each year more heritage sites gain this status. This paper explores the issues that emerge between tourism and heritage at two heritage sites, one with World Heritage listing and the other embarking on the application process. Interview data were collected in relation to the Royal Exhibition Buildings and Carlton Gardens (REB), Australia and Oamaru's Historic Precinct, New Zealand; secondary data were used to contextualise the findings. The findings of the two case studies indicate that the process, and outcomes, of World Heritage (WH) status influence the nature of the relationship between heritage and tourism. The findings of this case study analysis indicated that prospect of WH listing seems to be a catalyst for decision-making and developing networks between the various stakeholders of heritage and tourism, but heritage stakeholders seem to be grappling for power at this time. Once the listing process is successful, heritage then seems to gain the balance of power, and tourism seems to be less successful in controlling the situation. Further research is warranted on this topic to explore whether the findings from two sites can be generalised to other heritage sites.     

World Heritage: Exploring the Tension Between the National and the ‘Universal’

The complex issues of conservation, politics, tourism management and ownership have emerged as critical issues within the World Heritage debate and specifically within heritage tourism research. Within this context, this paper focuses on issues of ownership and belonging and argues that there exists a link between the conceptual inconsistencies inherent in the World Heritage idea and the tensions between the national and the ‘universal’ evident at a number of World Heritage Sites. That is, heritage sites that are deemed to be of ‘outstanding universal value’ and are bestowed with the World Heritage accolade are consequently no longer expected to be perceived as symbols of particular national identities, but as heritage belonging to all humankind. This, of course, provokes a series of debates over the issues of ownership and belonging of such heritage, namely between the national and the ‘universal’ suggesting that it is possible to perceive World Heritage as synonymous with contested heritage. The paper explores these issues of ownership and focuses on the Acropolis, symbol of the World Heritage idea, as a case study utilising an exploratory semiotic analysis of the promotional material released by the Greek National Tourism Organisation over the last five years.     

Global–local relationships and governance issues at the Great Wall World Heritage Site,China

Heritage preservation and tourism use are inevitably intertwined at heritage sites and are characterized by both symbioses and tensions, particularly at World Heritage Sites, where international initiatives interact with local priorities. The international designation impacts heritage preservation, tourism development and community well-being at the local level, especially in developing countries. This paper examines global–local relationships, as well as involvement and governance at intermediate scales, and their implications for preservation and development at Badaling Great Wall World Heritage Site in Beijing, China, through examinations of its management structure, heritage preservation and development plans, and the opinions of the local business community. Interviews were conducted with key officials of the Management Office and questionnaire surveys were distributed with local business operators. It is shown that multiple stakeholders operate in a hierarchical, multi-departmental management structure. International linkages are weak and via central government. Positive economic impacts from tourism are highly valued. High awareness of heritage preservation and positive attitudes toward tourism are identified among local business operators with relatively high tolerance for negative environmental impacts. Potential conflicts between global priorities by World Heritage designation and local needs for tourism development are illustrated. Practical implications for heritage and tourism planning and management are discussed.     

Rock art tourism in the uKhahlamba/Drakensberg World Heritage Site: obstacles to the development of sustainable tourism

This paper focuses on rock art tourism, a highly vulnerable heritage of broad public interest, only sustainable within an effective management framework. The paper explores tourism management in South Africa's uKhahlamba-Drakensberg World Heritage Site, inscribed in 2000 for its natural landscapes and its exceptional rock art heritage. In practice, nature dominates the area's tourism and management dynamics. Current tourism patterns, markets and frequencies, together with rock art's low place within tourist agendas, are described. This situation is shown to be a legacy of European Alpine romanticism, and the political rejection of indigenous cultural heritage prior to 1994, still expressed through visitor patterns and marketing policies. Despite rock art needing tourism to valorise its conservation, and being recognised by commentators and the state as a viable route to tourism development, heritage conservation, socio-economic regeneration and cultural empowerment, the failure to reform entrenched and ineffective tourism/conservation governance and management systems is exposed. The problems affecting rock art tourism have allowed the retention of unwelcome values from South Africa's pre-democratic era, risk the loss of World Heritage site status, the destruction of globally outstanding art works and waste an important opportunity to expand and diversify sustainable tourism in South Africa.     

线性文化遗产的特征及其对旅游利用模式的影响——基于《世界遗产名录》的统计分析

线性文化遗产是一种特殊的遗产类型,随着人们对遗产完整性不断深入的理解以及遗产活化利用理念的发展,线性文化遗产旅游的重要性日益显现。因此,树立线性文化遗产意识,把握线性文化遗产特征,是推进线性文化遗产旅游利用和可持续发展的重要问题。本文以《世界遗产名录》中收录的线性文化遗产为基础数据,对线性文化遗产的类别与列入标准、资源组合模式和核心区与缓冲区等典型特征进行深入分析,并从旅游空间演化和旅游活化路径两方面总结其对旅游利用模式的影响,以期为线性文化遗产旅游的可持续发展提供科学参考。研究结果表明,线性文化遗产旅游空间结构发展过程遵循“增长极”演化规律,并在遗产文化分层上表现出不同的利用方式和活化路径。     

Destination competitiveness and tourism development in Russia: Issues and challenges

With new border policies and the development of travel infrastructure, international tourism to Russia experienced double-digit growth in the past few years. Yet, few authors have reported on the challenges the country faces towards sustainable tourism development and competitiveness. This study discusses issues that have affected and that will continue to affect tourism in Russia. The tenets of destination competitiveness and sustainable development are used to guide a critical discussion of tourism in Russia. The study results from a three-year project that brought together European and Russian partners. Despite great potential, tourism development in Russia remains hindered by numerous issues such as destination image, infrastructure development, workforce training and education, quality management, and sustainable management. Beyond contributing to the tourism academic literature, this paper also aims at contributing to private and public policy stakeholders who prepare the future of Russia's tourism with Russian universities.     

利益主体(Stakeholder)理论在区域旅游规划中的应用--以四川省乐山市为例

不同利益主体之间的合作是区域和城市旅游业可持续发展的保障。本文尝试将利益主体理论应用到四川省乐山市旅游发展战略规划过程中，并对不同利益主体的旅游意识和利益表达进行了定性与定量分析；讨论并提出了“利益主体”理论在我国区域旅游发展规划中的应用途径。     

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest of Palenque: empowerment issues in sustainable development

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest has received little research attention. This study examines issues related to the level of empowerment in a Mayan village located near the Palenque World Heritage Site in southern Mexico. An adapted empowerment framework was used to assess community empowerment and its relationship with stakeholders’ participation by collecting the views of internal and external stakeholders in indigenous ecotourism. Using a checklist of 60 empowerment indicators, the study developed a wheel of empowerment tool that graphically illustrates and compares levels of empowerment/disempowerment in local communities. Results indicate that although there is a will from many villagers to participate in tourism, lack of knowledge, limited economic resources and the poor negotiation skills of local leaders have disempowered the community from undertaking ecotourism ventures. Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have not supported the community until recently, the private sector has played little part, and while the Mexican government is shaping the course of indigenous ecotourism with support programmes, state agencies have resisted local ecotourism development. Overall, the community fell below the midpoint on the Wheel of Empowerment Scale. These findings show a need for more effective empowerment strategies to maximise community involvement in managing cultural and natural resources for tourism development.     

Implementing sustainable tourism in Scotland: an interview

In China, sites categorised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites are commonly used as a means of economic regeneration through tourism development. This study is of a recent addition to the list, the diaolou (fortified tower houses) of Kaiping, Guangdong, in South China. This rural zone, characterised by past emigration and farming, is in the early stages of tourism development. The study, based on interviews and a survey, permits findings to be compared with other rural areas in China such as Hungcun and the Tangyue Arches of Bao Village in Anhui, and thus while similarities in attitudes are found, in Kaiping differences exist whereby tourism has been found to permit entrepreneurial activities while retaining an agricultural base as the “new tourism rich” employ others to continue farming. The work is contextualised within a model of evolving literature related to tourism impacts on communities. The paper explores a range of issues in sustainable tourism, including the use of tourism as a tool for social, economic and cultural development, holistic approaches to heritage tourism, and the development of glocalisation as a response to globalisation. It discusses differences in approach to heritage tourism, cultural change and commodification between western and Chinese scholars and society.     

Incorporating Neolithic villages at Petra,Jordan: an integrated approach to sustainable tourism

Listed as a World Heritage Site since 1985, the city of Petra is well regarded as the most important attraction in Jordan that is internationally recognized for its rare archaeological remains, monuments and façades that date back to Nabataean times. This paper presents an inter-disciplinary approach, which is co-constructed by an academic archaeologist and a sustainable tourism researcher that considers the integration of three rare and significant Neolithic villages as a unique extension of the cultural and heritage tourism experience in Petra. The paper begins by deliberating the implications of World Heritage Status for iconic and flagship destinations such as Petra. From this, results of a review of secondary research and interviews with local tour operators are presented which explored the issues and challenges that may inhibit the inclusion of the Neolithic villages as part of the Petra attraction system. The authors propose that an attraction diversification strategy and a sustainable tourism-planning approach are necessary to sustain the destination’s long-term future, conserve Petra’s archaeological sites, ensure economic benefits and appropriate participation of local communities within the region, and to serve as a way to attract more appreciative visitor markets to the region.     

Sustainable tourism and social value at World Heritage Sites: Towards a conservation plan for Altamira,Spain

This study aims to identify the factors that constitute the social value of heritage in relation to sustainable tourism. To do so, this paper provides a theoretical contribution by unifying the fields of heritage management and sustainable tourism through a mixed-method approach. It showcases the social dimension of the World Heritage Site of Altamira, Spain, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques. Research findings provide information about the multiple factors determining the social value of heritage, namely: existential, aesthetic, economic, and legacy values and the risks associated with underestimating the contemporary social value. Ultimately, this research paves the way for improving normative approaches toward sustainable tourism and, offers practical solutions to the challenges faced by the Altamira and other World Heritage Sites.     

Transnational World Heritage, (meta)governance and implications for tourism: An Italian case

Transnational World Heritage Sites foster international cooperation, with implications for tourism systems within and across State Parties. This work analyses the metagovernance of the Italian portion of the Prehistoric Pile Dwellings, a serial transboundary site. The results indicate that there are specific governance and metagovernance failures due to issues in the Italian system, notably the overly hierarchical structure for heritage policy. The clash between governance modes results in an ineffective decision-making structure, at the national level, laden with ‘red tape’. Thus, there is a need for more networked modes of metagovernance in order to improve the efficiency of the Italian site management as well as the complicated process of transnational World Heritage metagovernance and its application to national governance structures.     

Service-oriented,sustainable, local food value chain – A case study

Many developing countries depend on tourism as their main engine for economic development, but sustainability is often a concern. In the absence of inter-sectorial linkages between tourism and other industrial sectors, opportunities for trickledown benefits to host communities are stymied. For decades, researchers have been contending with issues related to strengthening agriculture and tourism linkages as a strategy to maximize economic linkages. This service-oriented approach to the local food supply chain is posited as a new model in which agriculture and hotel linkages can be advanced. We collected data about local food hotel supply through interviews with key stakeholders. The findings from our exemplary case study confirm that strengthening inter-sectorial linkages have benefits for stakeholders. This case study suggests that there are opportunities for tourism policies that foster local food linkages with high-end accommodation properties as a strategy to spread the economic spin off from tourism and also to encourage youth involvement in sustainable tourism development.     

Sustainable tourism development and residents’ perceptions in World Heritage Site destinations

Set in Malaysia’s Lenggong Valley World Heritage Site (WHS), this paper uses stakeholder theory to explore the heterogeneity of positive and negative perceptions among residents and their effects on residents’ support for and participation in sustainable tourism development. Data from 221 completed questionnaire surveys revealed heterogeneous negative perceptions across residents’ age, level of education and economic involvement in tourism. Moreover, residents’ positive perceptions had a positive effect on their support for and participation in tourism development. This study contributes to the resident perception literature by using stakeholder theory to conceptualise the heterogeneity of residents’ perceptions and by examining the effects of those perceptions on their support for and participation in tourism development in a rural WHS destination in the developing world. Furthermore, the findings of this study have practical implications for local authorities aiming to improve residents’ support and participation in tourism planning for sustaining tourism development.     

Book Review

World Heritage Sites (WHSs) are motivated by such diverse reasons as heritage celebration, alarm calls, tourism branding and marketing and place making. Irrespective of the primary motivation for their creation, WHSs are often used to develop tourism based on cultural and natural resources of international significance. Heritage conservation may or may not be in agreement with what local populations perceive as desirable development paths. We conducted a survey among the island community of Vega in Norway that received WHS status in 2004 motivated by conservation alarm, tourism marketing and place making. We examined the local population's views of the key aspects of future development and how this related to WHS status. The islanders placed high value on social and community conditions as well as heritage linked to cultural and natural resources. While a majority supported tourism based on sustainable use of heritage they also felt that WH listing should not limit development opportunities. There were differences between younger people and adults. WHS may be an effective agent of sustainable tourism development if the main goals and strategies of the WHS are clearly understood and prioritized in the local community, leave room and perhaps link to other development opportunities.     

海洋旅游发展的蓝色经济转向研究

“一带一路”倡议极大推进了中国海洋旅游业的发展,特别是“泉州：宋元中国世界海洋贸易中心”成为中国第56个世界遗产地后,在国内外掀起了海洋旅游研究的热潮。然而,学术界关于海洋旅游的研究相对零散,对于海洋旅游可持续发展缺乏系统性的梳理和检视。基于此,本研究以海洋旅游的蓝色转向为研究视角,采用文献梳理和案例分析方法,研究海洋旅游蓝色转向的趋势与挑战。研究发现：（1）相对于绿色经济,海洋旅游发展走向蓝色经济是可持续旅游发展的必然过程。（2）海洋旅游转向蓝色经济的方式包括活动与节庆旅游、生态旅游、邮轮旅游等业态,转向驱动与各个国家资源禀赋和社会经济发展水平息息相关。（3）海洋旅游蓝色经济转向将面临着COVID-19、福岛核事故、全球气候变化、海洋塑料等挑战,需要从区域至全球尺度,通过技术投入、创新模式和区域合作等路径,建立起更为广泛的蓝色经济转向的共识。在理论上,进一步完善了海洋旅游蓝色经济转向的理论框架,在实践方面为中国及其他国家和地区海洋旅游可持续发展提供经验借鉴,具有重要研究价值。     

The impacts of world cultural heritage site designation and heritage tourism on community livelihoods: A Chinese case study

This article examines how cultural heritage conservation, often reflective of Western values, impacts local sustainable livelihoods (SL) in a living cultural heritage site. The article argues for the modification of the SL framework for analysing cultural heritage tourism through including an explicit focus on the transforming structures and processes of local livelihoods in Fujian tulou, China, a World Cultural Heritage Site. Drawing on data collected through in-depth interviews, non-participatory observations, and secondary sources, findings show that changes related to tourism development and heritage conservation can reduce the sustainability of livelihoods in living heritage sites. Tulou clusters tend to be regarded as tourist attractions and cultural relics rather than lived-in places. Traditional livelihoods have been affected as residents are forced to adapt to the demands of tourism. This research helps to expand the SL theory by incorporating cultural heritage capital and community self-organisation, and highlighting residents' self-controlled capacity toward assets.