Spatial Pattern of Tourist Flows Among the Asia-Pacific Countries: An Examination over a Decade

The spatial dimension of tourism provides insights about travel demands and travel flows and helps destinations in planning, development and management. The last decade has witnessed a steady and rapid growth in the Asia-Pacific region's tourism industry, in terms of both inbound and outbound travel. This particular study aimed to: (a) provide information and explore the changes on the nature of travel flows as measured by the tourist arrivals among the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) member countries for the years of 1995 and 2004; (b) assess general propensity to travel among PATA countries using the concepts of Country Potential Generation Index and Gross Travel Propensity; and (c) examine the shift in the past decade in terms of the relative tourism generation power of PATA countries by comparing and contrasting the 1995 and 2004 indices. The results of the study provide an overview of the spatial patterns of travel flows and travel propensity in Pacific Asia region over a 10-year period. The study demonstrates that the functions of travel flows and indices are complementary and provide an informative picture of spatial travel behavior and demand.     

Sustainability performance assessment focusing on coral reef protection by the tourism industry in the Coral Triangle region

Coral reef based tourism in the Coral Triangle region is responsible for economic benefits but also for negative social and environmental impacts, thus an approach to evaluate this industry's sustainability performance would be valuable. We selected 10 key indicators, out of 681, that were directly relevant to the impacts of tourist activities on coral reefs in economic, social, environmental, and wildlife aspects of sustainability. Efficiency, inefficiency and overall models were developed to measure relative sustainability performance focusing on coral reef protection by the tourism industry for all six countries in the Coral Triangle, from 2008 to 2012. Our results showed that Indonesia had the best relative performance among countries in the region, followed in descending order by; Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Philippines, Timor-Leste, and Solomon Islands. Future plans to achieve higher performance by the tourism industry in each country can be made if a comprehensive sensitivity analysis is carried out.     

Shifting patterns and determinants of Asia-pacific tourism to Australia, 1990–2010

Australia is an increasingly important international holiday destination. Especially travel demand from Asia-Pacific countries has increased, which has led Australian policy-makers to believe the Asia-Pacific region will remain the largest growth market for holiday tourists. This article first presents an overview of the evolution and shifting geographical patterns of Asia-Pacific tourism to Australia between 1990 and 2010, and relies on this to explore the major determinants underlying these changes using a bootstrapped loglinear multiple regression analysis. Results indicate that income (GDP per capita) remains the most important factor explaining tourism demand, albeit that the Australian holiday market is becoming increasingly mature. Distance, as a proxy for travel costs, has large negative elasticity that has slightly increased over time as the effects of air transport liberalization have been off-set by oil prices’. The paper is concluded with an outlook on some possible opportunities and challenges for future tourism demand to Australia.     

Tourism product development and the changing consumer demand: A case study of Kenya

Kenya is an important tourist destination in Africa accounting for over 6% of the total international tourist arrivals to the continent. However, in recent years Kenya's tourism industry has been experiencing problems of poor performance and continuing decline in the number of international tourist arrivals. This study examines the main characteristics of the country's tourism product vis‐a‐vis the changing trends in global tourism market demands. It is argued that the underlying cause of the recent poor performance of the tourism industry relates to the nature of the country's tourism product. Over the years, Kenya has been offering a limited tourism product that is based on beach and wildlife tourism. Also, the marketing of Kenya mainly depends on overseas tour operators who mainly sell inclusive tour packages. Thus, the form of tourism product that is offered by Kenya has not responded to the recent changes and trends in international tourism market demands. Post‐modern tourists, particularly tourists from developed countries, are increasing becoming aware of the negative impacts of mass tourism and are increasingly looking for alternative tourism products that provide a deeper and more meaningful experience. Thus, if Kenya is to rejuvenate its tourism industry there is need for the country to provide a diverse alternative tourism product which is more appealing to the post‐modern tourists.     

International air travel attitude and travel planning lead times across 45 countries in response to the COVID-19 pandemic

This paper explores global differences in travel risk perception based on i) attitudes towards travel abroad, and ii) the time required to plan travel. Baseline data from 2019 is compared with data from 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. A methodology based on Big Data is developed through the Skyscanner metasearch engine, working with 20,756 million flight searches and 1979 million flight picks worldwide. We conduct an exploratory analysis by region, followed by a cluster analysis of 45 countries. We argue that the findings respond to uncertainty avoidance, with clear differences between Europe, America and Asia-Pacific. This knowledge has marketing implications for tourist destinations in terms of what marketing messages to convey and the best time to introduce marketing campaigns for each country or group of countries, so that the opportunity for reactivation of tourism is maximised.     

中国出境旅游高速增长的负面影响探析

旅游业是相当于我国GDP近6%的重要产业.国际旅游是旅游者的跨国界流动,是旅游者的消费能力从客源国转移到东道国的释放,被称为无形贸易和"风景资源的就地出口".20世纪90年代以前我国的国际旅游以入境旅游为主要形式,它曾是我国创汇的重要渠道."九五"以来,我国出境旅游持续快速发展.事实上,出境旅游的超高速增长正使我国旅游业面临由创汇产业向耗汇产业的过渡.本文拟从经济社会的宏观角度,将当前我国旅游业的发展看成是我国特定经济社会条件下的产物,从这个角度分析出境旅游的超常发展是否在"适度"的范围,探讨出境旅游发展对宏观经济、国际收支平衡和和谐社会的影响;并基于这种形势判断和负面影响分析,提出相应的政策调控构想.     

Using multiple indicators to evaluate the sustainability of dolphin-based wildlife tourism in rural India

Abstract

Assessing wildlife tourism sustainability in developing countries is crucial, but few studies analyse the sustainability of dolphin-based wildlife tourism in this context. We measure multiple indicators within the human dimensions of wildlife tourism, including tourist visitation numbers, satisfaction, preferences, perceptions, background and specialisation, to ascertain the extent to which the dolphin-watching industry at Chilika Lagoon, in rural India might be considered sustainable. Our methods included participant observation, tourist surveys, and the use of secondary data on visitation over 10 years. We found that the growth rate of tourist visitation over 10 years was beginning to decline. Tourists were mostly inexperienced, and dissatisfied with their dolphin-watching experience. Tourist preferences and perceptions showed useful insights and shortcomings in the way in which the industry was being conducted and managed, and reflected the expectations of non-specialist visitors. Our study highlights drawbacks in the way that wildlife tourism is managed in a rural, developing world context, which draws the sustainability of the dolphin-watching industry in Chilika into question. Future development of an early warning system that addresses combined governance or managerial, social, economic and ecological indicators, and an integrated management plan for conservation and wildlife tourism could contribute to the sustainable management of such industries.     

大篷车促销:中国旅游市场营销创新的成功实践--大篷车营销实现从实践到理论的飞跃

旅游大篷车是近些年来我国旅游市场营销的一大创新。国家旅游局组织全国旅游系统先后在欧美等地和日、韩等国家举办旅游大篷车 ,全国各地也已在国内外举办了上百次规模不等的旅游大篷车 ,并取得成功。目前大篷车宣传已渗透到经贸、科技、文化、体育等社会的许多领域。旅游大篷车的成功探索 ,推动了旅游业的发展和进步 ,特别是开创了旅游目的地营销的新范例。本文首次全面总结了旅游大篷车旅游营销活动的广泛性、轰动性、生动性、互动性、叠加性和多层面等六大特点 ,深入分析了大篷车旅游营销管理和运作的模式 ,阐述了旅游大篷车在旅游营销创新中取得的六大突破 ,即战略创新、模式创新、品牌创新、形象创新、市场创新和渠道创新。     

旅游业能源需求与二氧化碳排放研究进展

人类利用能源导致温室气体排放量的持续增加是全球气候变化的直接驱动力。旅游开发、旅游活动及旅游业发展引起的温室气体排放是旅游业驱动气候变化的重要因素,同时也是发展旅游业主要的环境影响结果之一。随着旅游业的蓬勃发展,旅游业对环境和气候变化的影响被相关国际组织和社会各界所关注,旅游业能源需求与二氧化碳排放研究成为近5年来旅游研究领域的热点。国外研究综述表明,目前已识别旅游业能耗、排放的重点领域及结构;在旅游业能源消耗与二氧化碳排放的定量估算研究与情景分析方面形成初步结论。对不同类型旅游交通方式、住宿方式及旅游活动的单位能耗和排放强度等关键性参数取得一般性认识,并识别了明显的国别、地区及不同部门之间的差异。基本形成体系化的节能减排政策措施。基于国内外旅游业能源需求与二氧化碳排放的结构与途径、测算、预测与情景分析及节能减排对策与措施等方面对比研究,作者指出未来国内研究应重点加强旅游交通和住宿业等重点领域能源需求与排放的定量实证研究,加强旅游业能源需求与排放的预测分析和情景研究,加快推进旅游业气候政策研究,切实提高旅游业应对气候变化和节能减排的研究水平,提高政策措施针对性和可操作性,以期为我国旅游业节能减排、应对气候变化提供科学依据。     

The medical tourism index: Scale development and validation

Medical tourism is an estimated $100 billion dollar industry. Despite the increasing number of people, companies and countries involved in medical tourism, we know very little about the key drivers and how countries are perceived as medical tourism destinations. The purpose of this paper is to present the Medical Tourism Index, a new type of country-based performance measure to assess the attractiveness of a country as a medical tourist destination. We followed a rigorous multi-steps scale development procedure by using four empirical studies based on 4995 respondents. The MTI is a multidimensional construct with 4 dimensions (country, tourism, medical costs, medical facility and services) with 34 underlying items. Our results show the MTI allows to measure meaningful differences between countries, not only on an aggregated level but also on each sub-indexes. It provides a useful tool for the various stakeholders to measure and manage their medical tourism destination brand.     

Developing a new Multi‐Nation tourism region: Thai perspectives on the Mekong initiatives

This article examines Thailand's recent tourism policy and its attitudes towards international tourism development collaboration in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Thailand is the major tourist destination country and gateway for international tourists visiting the region, and is a leader of Mekong tourism developments. This paper considers the Thai perspective on its tourism development, and examines current co‐operative activities in the Mekong region in the context of its own tourism industry. A number of research needs are sketched out as a proposed framework for future studies.     

Anthropology and tourism: A science-industry evaluation

The anthropological contribution to touristic study derives from this discipline's holistic perception of human culture and its comparative methodology. Renewed use of the “national character” approach, applying traditional field methods to industrial societies, would serve to identify elements stimulating tourism in the donor area and the needs within the recipient region. A tourist region is defined as a marketable destination with the surrounding support zones to supply requisite visitor services. The relationship between tourism and regional development needs to be assessed in terms of the economy theory of multiplier effect, as money, goods, services and people flow between the regional core and its support zones. Models illustrate internal development as well as donor-recipient relations. Science and industry share common goals in development and management of tourism, noted by efforts to educate the decision-makers as well as the tourist.     

综合国家距离对中国入境旅游的影响——基于CAGE距离框架的实证研究

入境旅游在旅游发展中具有重要战略地位,而我国入境旅游发展相对滞后,甚至影响到我国服务贸易的高质量发展。旅游具有异地性特征,现有研究往往从文化距离、行政距离、地理距离或经济距离等单一距离开展研究。然而,多种距离同时影响游客决策,单一距离模型降低了距离因素的解释力,同时纳入模型又会造成共线性问题,导致现有研究结论间存在矛盾,阻碍理论发展与应用。Ghemawat提出的国家距离框架基于多种距离形成评价总体国家距离的综合国家距离,得到普遍认可。文章基于国家距离框架,整合来自世界银行数据库、霍夫斯泰德文化维度官方数据、双边地理距离数据库、世界经济论坛等相关数据,形成2006—2018年我国55个客源国入境旅游的平衡面板数据,系统分析了综合国家距离对入境游客量的主效应、非线性影响,以及客源国互联网使用率的调节作用,得到如下结论:(1)综合国家距离是影响我国入境游客量的显著变量,距离对入境游的影响是文化距离、行政距离、地理距离和经济距离的复合效应;(2)综合国家距离与入境游客量之间呈正U形关系,综合国家距离可以是入境旅游的阻碍因素,也可以是促进因素,入境游客量随着综合国家距离增加而先减少后增加;(3)客源国互联网使用率没有弱化综合国家距离的影响,反而产生极化作用,极化了综合国家距离在拐点左侧的负影响和在拐点右侧的正影响。以上发现的主要价值为:(1)增进了对距离因素在国际旅游中作用的理解,提出影响入境游客量的综合国家距离变量;(2)识别出综合国家距离与入境游客量呈现正U形关系,证实综合国家距离是细分客源国市场的新变量;(3)揭示出客源国互联网使用率对综合国家距离产生的极化效应,突出了我国采用互联网传播目的地形象的必要性和重要性。     

游客满意:国家战略视角下的理论建构与实践进路

从创汇导向的国际旅游目的地发展到以游客满意为导向的国民旅游福祉提升,是包括中国在内的世界旅游发展战略正在经历的趋势性变革。游客在旅游基础理论研究和旅游经济发展实践中已经被事实上赋予了主体地位,游客满意应当、也可以成为当代旅游发展理论的学术基石、国家旅游发展战略的思想基础和目的地管理实践的政策创新。作者团队5年的全国游客满意度调查实践表明:城市政府牵头、培育游客和市民共享的生活空间、完善商业接待和公共服务体系等,是提升游客满意度的有效路径。     

杭州旅游企业家(经理人)队伍现状研究

创建旅游经济强市(省、区、县)的关键要素之一是培育一批旅游企业家队伍。该文对杭州市的旅游企业家进行了问卷调查,分析了杭州市旅游企业家、旅游经理人队伍的现状,评述了杭州旅游行业的创业环境。     

区域旅游开发的景区群落多样性分析——以天台县旅游开发为例

景区是介于旅游资源和旅游产品之间的一种中间形态,区域内景区的构成直接影响到区域旅游产品的结构。为了更好地对区域内景区的构成情况进行分析,文章引入了区域景区群落多样性的概念,提出了计算模型,并以天台县旅游开发为例对其景区群落多样性进行了分析。文章总结了对区域景区群落多样性分析的意义,并对现存的问题进行了讨论。     

试论产业发展进程中的旅游区(点)

在简要回顾中国旅游产业发展进程的基础上,本文对旅游业发展态势与旅游区(点)建设、经营和管理之间的互动关系做了重点分析,指出了在产业发展进程中旅游区(点)存在的问题,并有针对性地提出了相关的对策与建议.     

文化创意型旅游地游客满意度指数测评模型——以北京798艺术区为例

随着我国文化创意产业的快速发展,文化创意型旅游地成为我国一种新型的旅游目的地,测评其游客满意度指数有助于该类型旅游地的游客满意度提升和旅游业可持续发展。文章从游客期望、游客体验、游客评价、后旅游4个旅游活动阶段构建文化创意型旅游地游客满意度指数测评模型,并对典型文化创意型旅游地——北京798艺术区进行实证分析。研究结果表明：（1）798艺术区的游客总体满意度指数为3．6581,游客满意度指数最大的旅游活动阶段为体验阶段（1．7272）,而期望阶段和评价阶段的满意度较小,游客满意度指数最大的旅游因素和指标分别为旅游景观感知要素（0．9098）、文化创意景观（0．4448）;（2）基于测评模型和案例分析结果,分析文化创意型旅游地游客满意度的形成机理,并提出形成游客满意度主要因素为内部驱动因素（独特的文化创意景观、文化创意体验环境、科学有效的开发与管理等）和外部驱动因素（区域社会文化和经济发展水平、旅游地文化创意形象、创意旅游口碑、外部交通等）。     

Evolution of international tourist flows from 1995 to 2018: A network analysis perspective

Tourist arrivals and tourism revenues have been extensively studied to evaluate international tourist flows, whereas the structure and evolution of these flows have received less attention. Based on international tourist arrival data from 221 countries/regions during the period 1995–2018, this study applies network analysis to explore the structure and evolution of international tourist flows, and the roles and functions of countries/regions in the international tourist flow network. The results of this study reveal that the network density of international tourist flows is increasing. Countries/regions in Europe, East Asia and North America generally occupy a significantly important position within the international tourist flow network, especially Germany and China. Those geographically close countries/regions demonstrate the same or similar roles and positions in international tourism. This study has significant implications for tourist destination management and marketing.     

Migrant workers: Challenges and opportunities in addressing tourism labour shortages

The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates the number of migrant workers at 105 million worldwide, and their share within the tourism industry, particularly the hotel and restaurant (HoReCa) sector, is growing rapidly. The focus of this paper is migration in OECD member countries, specifically on official government positions with respect to the integration of migrant workers into the host society. Most countries recognise that the structural challenges and seasonal fluctuations in tourism will continue to encourage operators to resort to cheaper migrant workers, particularly for entry level positions, both legally and illegally. Until now, most OECD member countries have largely ignored the challenges and (ab)use within the industry concerning migrant workers, but will not be able to continue to do so for much longer. It is urgent that countries improve their ability to measure migration patterns by country of origin to determine training needs and other assistance required and engage employers appropriately.