Segmenting Green Consumers in the United States: Implications for Green Marketing

The purpose of the current study was to segment U.S. consumers into four distinct clusters based on their beliefs and motives regarding pro-environmental consumer behavior. Using a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults from Experian Simmons (N = 22,348), this study revealed that: (a) there are four clusters of consumers in the United States with a unique set of beliefs and motives regarding consumer environmentalism; (b) the clusters have distinct demographic and media usage profiles; and (c) the groups have varying responses to the industry's initiatives to protect the environment. Implications of the research are discussed in light of developing message and media strategies for green marketing.     

Deregulation of trucking in the United States — Implications for consumers

The purpose of this paper is to examine the history of motor carrier regulation in the United States and to assess the potential benefits and costs to consumers from deregulation of trucking in 1980. Benefits are based on the impact of increased competition and changes in operating restrictions on rates and logistics cost savings while costs are based on changes in highway safety due to the impact of deregulation on truck maintenance, truck driver behavior, and changes in the motor vehicle mix.The results of this study indicate that the partial deregulation of trucking in 1980 entailed considerable benefits due to the relaxation of entry restrictions and changes in operating restrictions. Average annual logistics cost savings were $38 billion from 1981 to 1986. It was concluded that the direct effect of deregulation on highway safety was favorable indicating that truck safety and truck driver behavior had improved under deregulation. However, deregulation had a positive effect on the proportion of miles driven by trucks which, in turn, had a positive effect on fatality rates. Thus, the indirect effect of deregulation was unfavorable. These results suggest that the driving environment, rather than the truck or truck driver, may play a major role in highway safety under deregulation. The need to monitor the adequacy of the existing road system is also reinforced by recent increases in the speed limit from 55 mph to 65 mph in many states.

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Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag versucht, die Entstehung der staatlichen Regulierung des motorisierten Transportwesens in den USA aufzuzeigen und die seit etwa 1980 einsetzende Deregulierung des Fernlastverkehrs danach zu beurteilen, welche Vorteile und Nachteile sie für die Verbraucher gebracht hat. Vorteile können sich aus der Wirkung verbesserten Wettbewerbs und geänderter Betriebseinschränkungen auf Gebühren und Transportkosten ergeben. Nachteile können aus Veränderungen der Straßensicherheit wegen schlechterer Fahrzeugwartung oder wegen Verhaltensänderungen bei LKW-Fahrern resultieren.Die Ergebnisse einer Analyse von Zeitreihendaten der Jahre 1957 bis 1986 machen deutlich, daß die teilweise Deregulierung des Fernlastverkehrs im Jahre 1980 durch die Lockerung von Zulassungsbeschränkungen und durch die Änderung von Betriebseinschränkungen beachtlichen Nutzen mit sich brachte. Von 1981 bis 1986 ergab sich bei den Transportkosten eine durchschnittliche Jahresersparnis von 38 Milliarden Dollar. Entgegen den Erwartungen dürfte sich die Deregulierung auch positiv auf die Straßensicherheit ausgewirkt haben, sofern man die Fahrzeugsicherheit und die Verbesserung des Fahrerverhaltens als Indikator dafür ansieht. Gleichzeitig jedoch hatte die Deregulierung auch einen förderlichen Effekt auf die Fahrleistung der Lastwagen, was wiederum die Unfallzahlen erhöhte. Den zuerstgenannten positiven direkten Effekten der Deregulierung stehen somit diese negativen indirekten Einflüsse gegenüber. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, daß es eher die äußeren Fahrbedingungen und nicht so sehr die Lastwagen selber oder die Fahrer und ihr Verhalten sind, die bei der Fahrsicherheit insgesamt die Hauptrolle spielen. Beispielsweise macht es die in vielen US-Bundesstaaten angehobene Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkung von 55 auf 65 Meilen pro Stunde verstärkt notwendig, die Eignung des bestehenden Straßensytems zu überwachen.

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Rachel Dardis is a Professor at the Department of Textiles and Consumer Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Janet Garkey is a public Responsibility associate at the American Express Company, New York, New York, and Zhiming Zhang is a graduate assistant at the same Department.The publication is article number A-4877 of the University of Maryland Agriculture Experiment Station.The authors are indebted to an anonymous reviewer for his helpful comments and in particular for his suggestions concerning the statistical model used in the analysis of highway safety.     

Foreign banks in the United States: Entry strategies and operations

This article deals with a very significant component of the U.S. banking industry: foreign banks in the United States. Their growth in the U.S., and specifically in California, is traced, as are the foci of their business strategy. In addition, the article explores the motivation of foreign banks to enter the U.S. market. All available theories are summarized and their relevance explored. The article goes on to speculate about some factors likely to influence the growth of foreign banking in the United States. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

英美国家的年龄歧视问题:表现、解决途径及对我国的启示

年龄歧视是对传统孝道的彻底否定.这一问题在西方国家由来已久,受到了较多的关注.近些年来英美等发达国家在立法和政策上出台了一系列解决措施,获得了一定的成效,但是年龄歧视现象依然存在.我国虽然传统文化中有尊老的传统,但是随着社会发展和社会转型的加快,对年长者的歧视在社会各个领域有所增加,甚至在某些方面表现有愈演愈烈之势和出现新的特点,对社会发展、和谐社会的建设产生了负面影响.对年龄歧视概念作出了明确的界定,对当代欧美国家年龄歧视的表现、解决的措施作了回顾和分析,提出了对我国的几点启示.     

Residental energy use: An investigation of consumers and conservation strategies

It is often assumed that energy conservation in the domestic sector can be achieved by technical innovation and higher prices supported by media exhortation. This paper argues that the impact of such policies is influenced by both consumers' personal characteristics and the structural or contextual conditions confronting them. The concept of energy literacy is described and shown to be related to energy saving behaviours and housing tenure, a contextual barrier for tenants given the nature of present energy conservation strategies.A field experiment is reported in which savings in household energy consumption were achieved by a strategy involving motivation, information, and consumption feedback. By itself, consumption feedback had no effect. It is concluded that energy conservation policy must take account of consumers' personal and contextual characteristics and aim to improve both energy literacy and structural conditions. In achieving the former, strategies which involve personal advice and generate the involvement of the consumer may have more impact than mass media campaigns.

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Häuslicher Energieverbrauch: eine Untersuchung von Verbrauchern und von Strategien zur Energieeinsparung

Zusammenfassung Häufig wird angenommen, daß häusliche Energieeinsparung am besten durch eine Kombination baulicher Maßnahmen zur Gebäudeisolation, finanzieller Anreize, höherer Energiepreiser und von Kampagnen in den Medien erreicht werden kann. Bisher haben solche Maßnahmen jedoch nur wenig Erfolg gehabt. Wenn die Massenmedien auch das allgemeine Bewußtsein für Energiefragen angeregt haben, so werden diese Fragen doch nur von einer bestimmten Verbrauchergruppe deutlich gesehen — von wohlhabenden Besitzern von Wohnungseigentum. Einsparungen, die möglich sind, sind jedenfalls bisher noch nicht realisiert. Die Gründe dafür liegen in persönlichen und situativen Voraussetzungen bei den Verbrauchern.Der Beitrag besteht aus zwei Teilen. Teil I berichtet über eine Umfrage, in der ermittelt werden sollte, welche Verbrauchereigenschaften zum Energiebewußtsein beitragen und ob das Energiebewußtsein auch den tatsächlichen Energieverbrauch beeinflußt. Eine wichtige Variable ist der Hausbesitz. Geringeres Energiebewußtsein bei Mietern wird darauf zurückgeführt, daß Mieter weniger Handlungsspielraum haben und nur wenig Vertrauen in die Erfassung des tatsächlichen eigenen Energieverbrauchs haben.Teil II berichtet über ein Feldexperiment zur Wirkung von Maßnahmen, die eine tägliche Rückmeldung des eigenen Energieverbrauchs liefern, von solchen, die über individuelle Möglichkeiten der Energieeinsparung informieren, und von kombinierten Informations-und Rückmeldungs-Maßnahmen. Drei entsprechende Versuchsgruppen wurden mit einer vierten Kontrollgruppe einer 2×2 Varianzanalyse unterzogen. Informationsmaßnahmen führten zu einer signifikanten Verringerung des Heizenergie-Verbrauchs. Rückmeldung alleine führte zu keiner nennenswerten unmittelbaren Einsparung, regt aber das Interesse am eigenen Energieverbrauch an und hilft in Verbindung mit Informationsmaßnahmen dabei, die effektivsten Einsparungsmöglichkeiten zu finden.Die Ergebnisse legen nahe, daß durch persönliche Beratung und Motivierung des einzelnen Verbrauchers mehr erreicht werden kann als durch Kampagnen in den Medien.

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George Gaskell is a Lecturer and Richard Pike is a Research Assistant at the Department of Social Psychology, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, Aldwych, London WC2A 2AE, England. The research was supported by a grant from the Energy Panel of the Social Science Research Council.     

Investment and marketing strategies of Mexican companies in the United States: Preliminary evidence

Because of its geographic proximity to the United States and its favored position as a member of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Mexico has become an emerging player in the global marketplace, and this new position has motivated several Mexican companies to establish businesses in the United States. Attempts have been made to explain why Mexican firms have become global players, explanations that focus on several national and international factors. However, these factors omit important drivers of the process, including entry and marketing strategies. This study aims to 1) give an account of how and why Mexican companies enter the United States, and 2) identify some tendencies in the way U.S. subsidiaries of Mexican companies develop and use marketing strategies to serve U.S. markets. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Dual Legality of Marijuana in the United States: Implications of Conflicting Government Policies on Consumer Well-being

Academics have recently become interested in the process by which socially controversial behaviors or practices (i.e., gambling, cosmetic procedures, drug use) become acceptable or legitimate. This article examines the “dual legality” of marijuana and its impact on consumer-related hazards through the lens of current legislation and extant literature. Simply stated, what are the implications of conflicting government policies for consumers' well-being? The intended contributions of this work are to offer significant insights into an issue of current topical and public policy importance for consumers' interests. Importantly, this work will serve as a foundation for future research on this unique product in its implications for consumers who are fundamentally altering the way in which a product is viewed and regulated.     

Exploration of firms' strategic control mechanisms in Australia and the United States: Implications for global governance structures

How much ownership is enough to exert strategic control over partners in the global marketplace? Top management frequently will attempt to have strategic influence over partners when it comes to the strategic direction of the organization. The question becomes, “what gives one partner control over another, and where does that power come from in the relationship?” This research examines the issue of strategic control in organizations in Australia and the United States to determine how to control global relationships. The research found that: (1) ownership is positively related to the degree of strategic control; (2) directness of ownership is positively related to the degree of strategic control; (3) dispersion is negatively related to the degree of strategic control; (4) board membership is positively related to the degree of strategic control; and (5) strategic control between U.S. and Australian organizations/relationships is different. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Linking JIT strategies and control systems: A comparison of the United States and Japan

Potential blows to US competitiveness by Japanese manufacturers have been instrumental in stimulating interest in the development of manufacturing strategy theory and its importance at the level of competitive strategy. Unfortunately, little substantial empirical research effort has attempted to measure manufacturing strategy and to explore its potential linkages with management control systems in the United States and Japan. This study expands the empirical data base available on this topic by exploring the adoption of just-in-time strategies, and the use of management control systems associated with the implementation of inventory reduction and flexibility initiatives in the United States and Japan.     

Consumer Religiosity: Consequences for Consumer Activism in the United States

In recent times, organizations have experienced consumer backlash as a result of decisions to support controversial causes. To date, little research has attempted to explain consumers’ negative response as a function of religion. This study addresses that gap in the literature and examines consumer religious commitment and Christian consumers’ conservative beliefs in the United States as motivating factors for consumer activist behavior and boycott participation. Findings from a national sample of 531 consumers suggest that consumers evaluate seller’s actions and form ethical judgments. These judgments are a major explanatory variable in consumers’ voice complaints, third-party complaint intentions, and boycott intentions.     

The Heterogeneity of Self-Employment: The Example of Asians in the United States

Self-employment rates differ widely across industries and across racial and ethnic categories. The heterogeneity of self-employment is most pronounced among Asians working in the U.S. The self-employment rate of Koreans is almost eight times greater than the self-employment rate of Laotians. This paper examines the pattern of self-employment across more narrowly defined classifications of Asians and industries to illustrate the heterogeneity of self-employment, and discusses the implications of this heterogeneity.     

Minimizing effects of ‘liability of foreignness’: Response strategies of foreign firms in the United States

While anecdotal and research evidence exists supporting the difficulties faced by foreign firms in host nation environments due to liability of foreignness, it is clear that many foreign firms have been successfully operating in the U.S. over the years. This study seeks to understand the strategies foreign firms use to cope with liabilities of foreignness in an alien environment and compete successfully with domestic firms, specifically through boundary spanning. Using a sample of 3861 firms in the U.S., we find that foreign firms on the average underperform compared to domestic firms. We also find these firms take a differing strategic posture to cope with the disadvantages of being a foreign firm compared to domestic rivals. Multiple mediation models indicate that once this strategic posture of foreign firms is controlled for, performance differentials do not exist between foreign and domestic firms.     

The Value of Private Businesses in the United States

The vast majority of businesses in the United States are privately held, and approximately 99 percent meet a common government definition of “small.” However, we know surprisingly little about the market values of these organizations. In this paper, we estimate the market value of privately held firms in the United States from sources on earnings, assets, and reported market value of multiple forms of business entities, including corporations, partnerships, LLCs, and sole proprietorships. We discuss various theoretical and practical methods of valuing assets, including those arising from economics, neoclassical finance, portfolio theory, and tradition. Concluding that most of them are not appropriate for valuing private firms, we use insights from dynamic programming and ratio analyses from traditional technique to produce a new estimate based on reported taxable earnings, net worth, and tax filing status. Using this approach, we estimate that privately held U.S. firms had earnings that exceeded those of publicly held firms in two recent years by a significant margin. Moreover, the market value of these firms exceeded that of publicly traded firms. We also conclude that policymakers, perhaps grossly, underestimate the true scale of “small” and privately held firms in the economy.