Determinants of fertility in developing countries

The contribution of agricultural modernization to changes in fertility in developing countries was examined. A model for the determinants of both fertility and infant mortality--hypothesized to be positively related--was specified and applied to cross-sectional data for 75 developing countries for the year 1971. The infant mortality rate, productivity per unit of labor and land, and density of population for agricultural land were highly correlated with the crude birth rate. The only other exogenous variables highly correlated with each other were productivity per unit of labor and infant mortality, and productivity per unit of land and population density for agricultural areas. The coefficient of population density of agricultural areas suggested a negative impact of density on fertility. The infant mortality rate, productivity per unit of land and labor, and density of population of agricultural areas explained 85% of the intercountry variation in fertility. The infant mortality rate, productivity of land, and productivity of labor were of descending order of importance in determining the crude birth rates in the countries analyzed. 68% of the intercountry variation in infant mortality was explained by fertility, adult literacy, per capita energy consumption, gini-coefficient of income distribution, population per hospital bed, and protein supply. Adult literacy, crude birth rates, population per hospital bed, per capita energy consumption, per capita protein supply, and gini-coefficient of income distribution were of descending order of importance in determining infant mortality rates. All of the variables that affected infant mortality directly affected fertility indirectly; conversely, all the variables that affected fertility directly affected infant mortality indirectly. Overall, these results confirm that agricultural modernization does exert an effect on fertility. The task in developing countries is to break the vicious cycle of infant mortality and fertility. This can be achieved both through family planning programs and the diffusion of health programs to lower infant mortality.     

Adjustment policies in developing countries: A reassessment

This paper analyses policy responses to external shocks by developing countries in the 1974–1976 and 1979–1981 periods. It is shown that outward-oriented economies relied largely on output-increasing policies of export promotion and import substitution to offset the balance-of-payments effects of external shocks in both periods and accepted a temporary decline in the rate of economic growth in order to limit their external indebtedness. In turn, inward-oriented economies failed to apply output-increasing policies of adjustment. They financed the balance-of-payments effects of external shocks by foreign borrowing in the 1974–1976 period, and had to take deflationary measures in 1979–1981 as their increased indebtedness limited the possibilities for further borrowing. The policies applied led to substantially higher rates of economic growth in outward-oriented than in inward-oriented economies, with the differences in growth rates offsetting the differences in the size of external shocks several times.     

Labour market performance in developing countries: A survey

Malfunctioning of labour markets is often given as a principal explanation of the widespread poverty in developing countries. Open urban unemployment and disguised unemployment in agriculture are generally considered symptoms of the poor performance of the decentralized system of allocation of labour time and skills in these countries.This survey leads us to a much less pessimistic view of labour market performance per se, though obviously imperfections do exist. On the one hand, the shifts of the labour force in response to shifts in demand have been noteworthy and suggest, at an aggregate level, rather impressive performance. On the other, a closer look at open unemployment, disguised unemployment, and other possible types of labour market malfunctions suggests that they may be less serious misallocations than they appear, and that only in part can such misallocations be attributed to poor labour market functioning.Though the labour market is the immediate locus of the problem of low and stagnant incomes of workers at the bottom of the distribution, the evidence suggests no causality in this association. There is no reason to presume that poverty is a manifestation of labour market failure.     

Food aid to developing countries: A survey

Food aid currently constitutes nearly 15% of official development assistance and hence has considerable potential as a stimulant to growth in LDCs. This paper reviews the evidence on the impact of food aid on growth and its associated factors. While recognizing that the use of food aid is influenced by a constellation of interests in recipient and donor countries, it identifies a set of guiding principles for maximizing the effectiveness of food aid. These include the need for food (relative to other development needs), its level of substitutability with commercial imports, its incorporation in a poverty-oriented development plan, its guaranteed availability and its complementarity with financial aid. Current food aid programmes recognize the relevance of some of these principles - e.g. the criteria of necessity - but ignore others — notably the need to situate food aid in a comprehensive plan for improving patterns of income distribution in LDCs.     

Small industry in developing countries: A discussion of issues

This paper first examines the changing size distribution of industry in developing countries by region and over time, and, by reference to firm-level surveys, it discusses the underlying causes. The importance of markets generated by the growth of agriculture and rural incomes for the regional development of industry, both small- and large-scale, is noted. Second, it discusses the entrepreneurship issue, arguing that while small and largefirms alike are highly responsive to the growth of markets, the measured entrepreneurial response is neither as full nor as efficient as is desirable. The third and last part discusses small industry programmes and their relation to development policy. Financing and extension programmes are considered in detail, and there is a discussion of the risks involved. Some parallels with agricultural credit are discussed, in particular the default problem and the problems associated with concessionary finance. It is also argued that small industries - and, by implication, the programmes intended to support them - would stand to benefit from more efficient (and also more labour-demanding) policies towards agriculture and industry.     

Export incentives and export performance in developing countries: A comparative analysis

Zusammenfassung Exportf?rderung und Exporterfolge in Entwicklungs-l?ndern: Eine vergleichende Analyse. — Dieser Aufsatz enth?lt eine vergleichende Be-wertung der Exportf?rderungsmaβnahmen und ihrer Wirkungen auf die Exporte und die wirtschaftliche Leistung von elf wichtigen Entwicklungsl?ndern, die bereits eine industrielle Basis besitzen. Die Arbeit konzentriert sich weitgehend auf die Er-fahrungen der Periode von 1966 bis 1973, in der die Exportf?rderungsprogramme der einzelnen L?nder im groβen und ganzen voll angewendet wurden. Die betrach-teten L?nder sind Argentinien, Brasilien, Chile, Kolumbien, Mexiko, Israel, Ju-goslawien, Indien, Korea, Singapur und Taiwan. Sie sind entsprechend dem Zeit-punkt und dem Ausmaβ ihrer Exportf?rderungsanstrengungen in vier Gruppen eingeteilt worden. 1973 stellten diese L?nder 68 vH aller Exporte von Industrie-erzeugnissen aus Entwicklungsl?ndern. Bei der Durchführung der vergleichenden Analyse hat der Autor neben den Resultaten anderer Forscher die Ergebnisse von Studien benutzt, die im Auftrage der Weltbank und für das ECLA/IBRD-Seminar über Exportf?rderung erarbeitet wurden. Der Aufsatz beschreibt kurz die Exportf?rderungsanstrengungen der einzelnen L?nder, die sich daraus ergebenden ?nderungen ihrer F?rderungssysteme und die Lage im Jahre 1973. Die Wirkungen dieser Mavnahmen auf Export und Wirt-schaftswachstum werden abgesch?tzt und Empfehlungen gegeben für ein ?ideales? Anreizsystem zur Exportf?rderung und für die allgemeine Allokation der Ressourcen. In den Schluβfolgerungen wird auf die Zukunftsaussichten für die gewerblichen Exporte der Entwicklungsl?nder eingegangen.

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Résumé Les incitations exportatrices et la performance exportatrice dans les pays en voie de développement: une analyse comparative. — Ce papier présente une évaluation comparative des incitations exportatrices et leurs effets sur les exportations et la performance économique dans onze majeurs pays développants qui ont déjà établi une base industrielle. Principalement le papier concentre sur l’ex-périence de la période 1966–1973, quand les schèmes des incitations exportatrices des pays individuels étaient totalement en opération. Les pays considérés sont l’Argentine, le Brésil, le Chili, la Colombie, le Mexique, l’Israel, la Yougoslavie, l’Inde, la Corée, le Singapore et le Taiwan. Nous les classifions en quatre groupes, en dépendence du temps et de l’étendue de leurs efforts de promotion exportatrice. En 1973, ces pays occupaient un pourcentage de 68 des exportations des produits manufacturiers des pays développants. En faisant l’analyse comparative, l’auteur a utilisé les résultats des études préparées sous l’égide de la Banque Mondiale, les résultats des études préparées pour le séminaire du CEAL/BIRD sur la promotion exportatrice, aussi bien que les résultats des autres chercheurs. Le papier brèvement décrit les efforts de promotion exportatrice des pays indi-viduels, les changes résultants dans leurs systèmes d’incitations et la situation existante en 1973. Nous évaluons les effets de ces efforts sur les exportations et la croissance économique et nous faisons des recommandations pour un système ?idéal? des incitations pour les exportations et l’allocation des resources en général. Finale-ment, en tirant des conclusions du papier, nous considérons les prospects pour les exportations des produits manufacturiers par les pays développants.

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Resumen Incentivos de exportación y desempe?o de las exportaciones en países en desarrollo: un análisis comparativo. — Este artículo presenta una evalua-ción comparativa de los incentivos de exportación y sus efectos sobre las exporta-ciones y el desempe?o de la economía en once países en desarrollo de tama?o mayor que ya han establecido una base industrial. E1 artículo se concentra mayormente sobre la experiencia del período 1966–1973, cuando los esquemas de incentivos a la exportación de los países individuales estaban en su mayor parte en operación. Los países considerados son Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México, Israel, Yugoeslavia, India, Corea, Singapur y Taiwan. Ellos fueron clasificados en cuatro grupos, dependiendo de la regulación y del grado de sus esfuerzos de promoción de exportación. En el a?o 1973, estos países sumaban el 68% de las exportaciones de manufacturas de los países en desarrollo. Para realizar el análisis comparativo, el autor ha utilizado resultados de estudios preparados bajo el auspicio del Banco Mundial, resultados de estudios preparados para el seminario CEPAL/IBRD sobre promoción de exportaciones, como también los resultados de otros investigadores. El articulo describe brevemente los efuerzos de promoción de exportación de los países individuales, los cambios ocurridos en sus sistemas de incentivos y la situación existente en el a?o 1973. Se evalúan los efectos de estos esfuerzos sobre las exportaciones y el crecimiento económico y se formulan recomendaciones para un sistema ?ideal? de incentivos a las exportaciones y para la alocación de recursos en general. Finalmente, al formular las conclusiones de este articulo, se hacen con-sideraciones sobre las perspectivas futuras para las exportaciones de bienes manu-factuardos de países en desarrollo.

     

An empirical intertemporal model of developing countries’ imports

Zusammenfassung Ein empirisches intertemporales Modell der Importe von Entwicklungsl?ndern. - In diesem Aufsatz wird ein intertemporales Modell der Gesamtimporte für drei Entwicklungsl?nder spezifiziert und gesch?tzt. Die Importe h?ngen ab von den laufenden und erwarteten Deviseneinnahmen, den Importpreisen und den Zinss?tzen. Das Modell wird mit zwei anderen Importmodellen aus der Literatur verglichen: Für zwei der drei L?nder scheint das intertemporale Modell das bessere zu sein, w?hrend für das dritte ein anderes Finanzmodell (leicht) überlegen ist. Die Arbeit zeigt, da\ die Finanzvariablen den gr?\ten Teil der Varianz in den Importen der Entwicklungsl?nder erkl?ren, da\ es in erheblichem Umfang intertemporale Substitution gibt und da\ die ?rmeren L?nder h?here Raten der Abzinsung aufweisen als die reicheren.

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Résumé Un modèle empirique intertemporel des importations des pays développants. - Dans cet article l’auteur spécifie et estime un modèle intertemporel des importations totales pour trois pays développants. Les importations sont rapportées aux valeurs courantes et attendues des recettes de devises, aux prix d’importation et aux taux d’intérêt. Le modèle est comparé avec deux autres modèles d’importation dans la littérature: pour deux des trois pays le modèle intertemporel semble être le meilleur pendant que pour le troisième pays un autre modèle financier domine. L’article montre que les variables financières expliquent la plupart de la variance des importations des pays développants, qu’il y a une mesure substantielle de substitution intertemporelle et que les pays les plus pauvres ont des taux d’escompte de temps plus hauts que les pays les plus riches.

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Resumen Un modelo empírico intertemporal de importaciones de países en desarrollo.- En este trabajo se especifica y estima un modelo intertemporal de importaciones totales para tres países en desarrollo. Las importaciones están relacionadas con valores corrientes y esperados del ingreso de divisas, precios de importación y tasas de interés. El modelo es comparado con otros dos modelos de importaciones publicados. Para dos de los très países el modelo intertemporal parece ser el mejor, mientras que para el tercero (sólo) es superado por otro modelo financiero. El trabajo demuestra que las variables financieras explican la mayor parte de la varianza de las importaciones de los países en desarrollo, que existe un alto grado de sustitución intertemporal y que países más pobres tienen tasas de descuento temporal más altas que países más ricos.

     

Construction industry in developing countries

This paper provides a review of the construction capability available in the developing countries to meet the demand for shelter. It discusses the role of construction in the process of development and its importance to economic growth. It considers the issues facing the growth of a viable indigenous construction industry in the developing world within the context of the activities involved in the creation of constructed facilities – planning, design, construction and maintenance; it also examines the environment within which the industry has developed. For each construction activity the paper reviews available capabilities, the various resources needed for the development of an indigenous industry, and some possible means of accommodating these needs.     

Chinese contractors in developing countries

This paper uses turnover data from Chinese contracted projects in as many as 87 low and lower middle income countries from 1998 to 2009. Economic fundamentals motivate Chinese contractor presence in developing countries as their revenues are positively associated with countries’ per capita income and expected growth. All else equal, contractor project revenues are higher in countries with stronger political rights regimes. Moreover, the estimated positive effect of improvements in political freedom is largest among countries with high fuel endowment, but lowest among countries with high ores and metals endowments. Conclusions relating Chinese contractor activities, perceptions on the level corruption, and resource endowment among sub-Saharan African countries must remain tentative as the estimated relationships are sensitive to the corruption indices used.     

Fiscal disequilibrium in developing countries

Fiscal equilibrium necessitates that ‘permanent’ government expenditures be covered by ‘permanent’ government revenues. The concept of ‘permanent’ goverment expenditures and revenues takes into account future revenue from capital investments as well as temporary windfalls. Hence, equilibrium may exist despite temporary imbalance between revenue and expenditure. The causes of disequilibrium can be classified into five categories: export boom; price-inelastic tax system; public enterprise performance; increased expenditure produced by political exigencies or administrative weaknesses; and worsening terms of trade. In practice, unrealistic customs valuations, specific as opposed to ad valorem taxes and administrative difficulties have been the most common sources of declining government revenue as a percentage of gross domestic product. Increased subsidies both to consumer goods and to public enterprises as well as inadequate control mechanisms have been the most frequent causes of rising government expenditure.     

Foreign trademarks in developing countries

Foreign trademarks are used in some cases to cover imported goods and generally products made in the host countries by foreign manufacturing subsidiaries and licensees. This industrial property right is a major source of market power for those subsidiaries making consumer goods. Domestic enterprises making similar goods must either accept a reduced share of the market or must enter into trademark license agreements. But even in those cases, although licensees of foreign-owned trademarks receive a current profit out of the licence, they cannot enjoy the result of the goodwill development.Although the advertising expenditures are borne by the consumers of the developing countries, the accrual in goodwill is for the benefit of non-resident owners of this intangible asset. These private benefits — mostly appropriated by the foreign trademark owner — can be considered as net social costs to the recipient country.     

Resource mobilization in developing countries: Financial institutions and policies

Discussion in this paper of the areas and scope for domestic policy action aimed at improving the process of domestic resource mobilization, allocation and use is developed in several stages. First, the authors assess the progress made by LDCs in raising their rates of saving and investment over the past 25 years. Next, government policies — government tax expenditure and pricing policies, in particular — and their effect on public savings are discussed. This is followed by treatment of the issues of private saving performance and allocation, i.e. how to stimulate and make better use of household savings. Institutional and policy measures are suggested as means of promoting a more active role of the banking system. Brief reference is made to the role of development banks in project preparation and in tapping the capital market.