Social-ecological resilience and community-based tourism: An approach from Agua Blanca,Ecuador

Socio-ecological resilience (SER), as a theoretical framework, provides an original approach to the study of socio-ecological sustainability, affirming that sustainable development can only be achieved in sufficiently resilient socio-ecosystems. Sustainability is one of the major challenges facing tourism. Therefore, the exploratory application of this theoretical approach to tourist contexts could be particularly apt. Practically all current modes of tourist operation profess a commitment to sustainability, but this is much more significant in experiences of community-based tourism (CBT). This paper presents an ethnographic case study in Agua Blanca, an Ecuadorian community that engages in turismo comunitario, a community-based tourism development strategy. The study explores the expediency of studying socio-ecological resilience in tourist research and attempts to open up new pathways for analytical and methodological development.     

Collaborative marketing for the sustainable development of community-based tourism enterprises: voices from the field

This paper examines stakeholder engagement in the collaborative marketing of community-based tourism enterprises (CBTEs). The study explored the various collaborative marketing approaches shaped by diverse stakeholders’ perspectives on ways to achieve the sustainable development of CBTEs in Vietnam. The results of 30 in-depth, semi-structured interviews from three CBTEs in Vietnam showed that three collaborative marketing approaches were prevailed among CBTE stakeholders and were categorised as commercial viability-driven, community development-driven and balanced approaches. The approaches’ differences were reflected in the marketing objectives to achieve CBTE sustainability, the central linkages of CBTE collaborative marketing, and the facilitators of stakeholder collaboration. The research found a knowledge gap between researchers and research participants and divergent perspectives among different categories of research participants regarding marketing and CBTE sustainability. This paper implies the role of a knowledge co-production approach to drive the stakeholder engagement in CBTE collaborative marketing for CBTEs’ long-term success. Additionally, this study provides insights into the discussion of marketing for sustainable tourism. Furthermore, the findings contribute to a better understanding of the collaborative approach at the organisational level.     

Territorial tourism planning in Spain: from boosterism to tourism degrowth?

Abstract

Tourism saturation and unsustainability have been studied in urban political ecology. Both of these problems are inseparable from tourism planning and they have resulted in proposed solutions based on growth containment and even degrowth. These types of measures have been applied to varying degrees in mature coastal destinations in Spain since the 1990s, and they are currently being used for the country's main urban destinations due to problems generated by tourism saturation. This study examines the progressive incorporation of these measures in territorial tourism planning in Spain and it points out that the traditional emphasis on urban-tourism growth is declining and that more restrictive policies are now being implemented. This shift is illustrated through the analysis of three innovative territorial tourism planning instruments in Barcelona, the Balearic Islands and the Autonomous Region of Valencia. These ostensibly progressive processes suffer from crippling contradictions due to their inability to directly confront the capitalist accumulation model underlying the tourism growth they address. Consequently, much stronger measures capable of transcending this accumulation model in pursuit of genuine, and fair degrowth without systemic constraints are needed.     

Natural amenities-driven migration and tourism entrepreneurship: Within business social dynamics conducive to positive social change

This study examines the within tourism businesses social dynamics that lead to positive community social change via the reduction of barriers between amenity migrants and locals. The overarching study question is: What social dynamics happen within amenity migrant owned tourism businesses that are reducing social barriers between migrants and locals and leading to positive social change in the community? Findings show the existence of a dynamic interplay between the amenity migrants and locals who are working together that reflect rational (providing opportunities for locals to become tourism producers, promoting mutual understanding and respect, widening the participation of locals in decision-making) and emotional (welcoming nature, sympathetic understanding, emotional closeness) dimensions, reducing their differences and creating positive social change in the community.     

The contribution of social tourism to sustainable tourism: a case study of seasonally adjusted programmes in Spain

Recent policy from the European Union has attempted to justify social tourism initiatives on the basis that they lead to a more sustainable tourism industry. However, the majority of latest research in the field has been focused on the benefits for participants, with the addition of some evidence on the economic impacts of such programmes on destinations, which have pointed towards sustainability outcomes including: a longer tourism season, more even spread of demand, and longer periods of employment for tourism workers. Yet there is a lack of direct evidence linking such programme to these outcomes. This paper aimed to explore this important disconnect between policy assumptions and evidence-based outcomes through an analysis of the deseasonalising effects of the Spanish social tourism programme for older people. The research found that this programme does have an effect on the seasonal nature of employment and economic activity in most regions studied, but that the huge volume of demand from international tourists in the high seasons masks the quantitative effects in the regions with the highest seasonal concentration of international tourists. Recommendations for policy and practice in sustainable tourism are made that are transferable to many countries and regions that adopt social tourism programmes.     

Community-based tourism ventures,benefits and challenges: Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust,Central District,Botswana

The impact of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is seen by many as a ‘win-win’ situation with reference to natural resources conservation and the improvement of local communities' livelihoods. However, community engagements in CBNRM and tourism have elicited many views as far as natural resources utilization is concerned. Some affirm the importance of CBNRM; others question it, while others call for its improvement. The premise of this study is to investigate the benefits and challenges of community-based tourism in one community of Botswana. Results show that although some benefits have been identified, there remain many challenges for the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust (KRST). It is evident that for community-based tourism to bring more benefits for locals, more interaction is needed between them and the Trust management. Increased local involvement and participation will help to ensure that people are empowered and the conservation of natural resources takes place. This paper asserts that community-based ventures, if properly run and managed, can promote the conservation of natural resources and increase local benefits through participation in tourism activities.     

Learning through engagement: undergraduate students engaging in community-based participatory research (CBPR) in hospitality and tourism education

This paper discusses how instructors can engage their students in community-based participatory research (CBPR) projects that involve not only research on a topic but also include community stakeholders in the research process and provide opportunities for service learning. CBPR is defined, examples of effective CBPR student projects are presented, the possible benefits and drawbacks of CBPR student projects are offered, and tips for conducting successful CBPR projects with hospitality and tourism students are provided.     

Local reactions to mass tourism and community tourism development in Macau

By 2014, it became apparent that a popular debate was emerging in many destinations about the “annoyances” felt by local residents in the face of an upsurge in inbound tourism. This study investigates residents’ attitudes toward mass tourism and tourism development in Macau. It comprises an examination of three emotional solidarity factors of residents’ perceptions of the contribution of tourism to the community and the community's experiences of so-called “annoyances” from tourists that may ultimately influence residents’ attitudes toward community tourism development. The results of this study reveal that three emotional solidarity factors play different roles in influencing residents’ attitudes about community tourism and community tourism development. The theoretical contributions, as well as implications, are discussed and future research opportunities are proposed.     

Sustainable tourism and social value at World Heritage Sites: Towards a conservation plan for Altamira,Spain

This study aims to identify the factors that constitute the social value of heritage in relation to sustainable tourism. To do so, this paper provides a theoretical contribution by unifying the fields of heritage management and sustainable tourism through a mixed-method approach. It showcases the social dimension of the World Heritage Site of Altamira, Spain, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques. Research findings provide information about the multiple factors determining the social value of heritage, namely: existential, aesthetic, economic, and legacy values and the risks associated with underestimating the contemporary social value. Ultimately, this research paves the way for improving normative approaches toward sustainable tourism and, offers practical solutions to the challenges faced by the Altamira and other World Heritage Sites.     

Quality and endogenous tourism: An empirical approach

We propose a theoretical model and an empirical study that highlight the role of quality of tourism services and endogenous tourism in long-run economic growth. We study a theoretical growth model of international trade where tourism is the growth engine and quality of tourism services has a positive impact on long-term growth. We also provide an empirical analysis to test the relation between tourism, quality and economic growth in Spain over the period 1970–2010. Our results show that in the long run, tourist arrivals, quality of tourism accommodations, and foreign GDP have a positive effect on Spanish GDP. In the short term, changes in economic growth appear to lead to growth in tourist arrivals. Our findings support a two-way causal relationship between real GDP growth and tourism growth in Spain.     

Differences in tourist ethical judgment and responsible tourism intention: An ethical scenario approach

While many tourists recognize the necessity of responsible tourism, not all respond to it equally. Thus, this study explores behavioral discrepancies in responsible tourism practices with respect to three types of ethical travel issues (economic, socio-cultural, and environmental). An ethical decision-making process that begins with perceived importance of ethical issues (PIE) was examined using a scenario approach based on responses from tourists in South Korea. Results found that (1) tourists responded to specific responsible issues in different ways, (2) PIE was positively related to ethical decision making, and (3) except for economic issues, tourists with more travel experiences were more likely to make ethically favorable decisions. Such findings provide useful information that can help improve upon the limited understanding of the ethical decisions of tourists. Effective communication and management strategies to raise awareness and facilitate responsible tourist behavior are further discussed.     

Trends in tourism planning and development

A number of tourism planning principles is considered and reference is made to the methodology of ekistics (the study of human settlements). Patmos, a Greek island, is taken as a case study, and the results of this tourism project are assessed in relation to the planning principles and methodology outlined.     

Sustainable tourism: development,decline and de-growth. Management issues from the Isle of Man

The concept of sustainable tourism emerged as a reaction to the impacts of tourism development. This paper shows the relevance of sustainable tourism to tourism decline and the rising interest in de-growth. Mixed-methods research in the Isle of Man, UK, was carried out by analysing 355 postal questionnaires sent to randomly selected island households, and conducting 32 in-depth personal interviews. The research revealed a series of negative environmental and social consequences of tourism decline in a small island. Such consequences are found to occur despite successful local diversification into other industries, notably offshore finance. Consequences of decline are revealed as tangible, e.g. facilities closure, and as less tangible, e.g. a sense of rejection by off-islanders, and have led to an increasing sense amongst residents of isolation and loss of local attractiveness. Results suggest tourism decline, de-growth and economic replacement require sustainable management in order to facilitate change. Measures such as urban and rural landscape protection, may reduce adverse effects of decline. A re-assessment of the application of the principles of sustainable tourism in the context of decline, rather than development, is needed.     

Medical tourism development in Hong Kong: An assessment of the barriers

The aim of this study is to determine the factors influencing the development of medical tourism in Hong Kong. A qualitative research method was adopted to collect data from representatives of private and public hospitals, government bodies, and medical institutions. The results reveal that policies and regulations, government support, costs, capacity problems, and the healthcare needs of the local community are the main barriers to the development of such tourism. Several strategies for lifting these barriers are suggested, such as new promotional activity policies, government action to encourage investment in the medical tourism market, and cooperative efforts by the hospitality sector and medical institutions to develop medical tourism products.     

The nominal group technique: An approach to consensus policy formulation in tourism

The use of the Nominal Group Technique (NGT) as a tool for consensus planning in tourism is discussed. NGT is described specifically with respect to an initial planning exercise conducted by the Tourism Industry Association of Alberta, Canada (TIAALTA), who had concluded in 1983 that the private sector should play a greater role in developing and managing tourism in Alberta. TIAALTA used NGT to identify priority issues and problems. Other applications of NGT are described, and the method is compared to other qualitative methods. The author recommends increased application of NGT in tourism research, planning and management.     

An analysis of households' appraisal of their budget constraints for potential participation in tourism

This paper examines the importance of households' budget constraints as a barrier to participation in tourism. For this purpose, a sample of Spanish households drawn from the European Community Household Panel was analysed. This survey gathers data on the economic and socio-demographic situation of all adult household members. More specifically, it includes a question on each household's capacity to afford a week's yearly holiday. The aim of this question is to assess whether households have sufficient financial resources to participate in tourism. The results of the analysis demonstrate that budget constraints on tourist travel are binding for a significant percentage of Spanish households. The results also show that this type of constraint is not only conditioned by the level of income, but by a more complex appraisal that also includes other financial variables, such as households' saving capacity or the unemployment status of its members. Furthermore, non-financial variables, such as the level of education, age, and barriers associated with poor health status, all help to determine the degree of importance with which households perceive their budget constraints.     

An educational simulation tool for integrated coastal tourism development in developing countries

In spite of the importance of coastal tourism for the economies of many developing countries, tourism infrastructure has often been developed without full consideration of long-term impacts on the environment. The simulation model presented in this paper aims to address critical gaps in awareness and capacity for integrated decision-making and planning in tourism infrastructure development in a developing country context. We build a simple closed-loop model of tourism infrastructure investment, which integrates typical economic, social and ecological dimensions of the problem. The model is calibrated so that within 20 years, investment projects in tourist capacity done without concomitant investment in solid waste and wastewater treatment result in a collapse of fish stocks and a sharp drop in tourist attendance. The model includes several policy options that allow users to intervene at various points in the loop, allowing stakeholders to explore how various combinations of policies perform in financial, environmental and social terms over the long period. The model can, therefore, be used as an educational tool for training and capacity-building.     

Community tourism development scenarios and their use in tourism research

Scenarios have been utilised to a limited degree in tourism and in a number of areas such as in development, sustainability studies, and political decision making. The use of scenarios has primarily concentrated on evaluating people's attitudes and decision processes, as predictions toward perceived future situations for tourism planning, and as a tool in exploratory research. In a recent study conducted in Eastern Australian coastal regions, a set of community tourism scenarios was developed in order to gauge the types of communities with tourism development, and thus explore in more depth the ideologies and platforms which may have influence on decision making in local government. The use of a community tourism scenario, such as developed in this study may have strong implications in broadening the way tourism and community researchers distinguish community attitudes toward present and future tourism development opportunities as well as their corresponding pressures. In addition, it may provide a positive tool for understanding perceived community directions as well as providing a mechanism for gauging planning decisions in a tourism context.     

The Hershey sugar mill in Cuba: from global industrial heritage to local sustainable tourism development

Although now abandoned, the Hershey sugar mill represents much of Cuba’s history, heritage, culture, and economy. The associated company town, nature gardens, and electric rail line remain in use to date, albeit in deteriorating condition. This paper presents the history of Hershey investment and significance in Cuba, the current state of the site, and the results of an evaluation of the potential for developing the Hershey complex as a sustainable tourism destination and source of local employment. The study concludes that conservation of the site is a cultural imperative for Cuba, but with many obstacles and challenges. Incremental steps toward development may be feasible – particularly with growing potential for open tourism from the US.     

Partnership perspectives in tourism and recreational property development

Property development partnerships are increasingly being seen in the UK as a means of achieving tourism and recreational projects. This article briefly examines the nature of the relevant property development market; characteristics and attitudes of involved organisations; purposes, benefits and mechanics of partnerhsips (illustrated by two case studies); and future directions for partnerships. The issues and potential approaches identified are, to varying extents, of relevance to project implementation in developed and developing countries.