Public participation in defining landscape planning scenarios and landscape quality objectives (LQO): Landscape Guidelines for Galicia (NW Spain) case study

Since the adoption of the European Landscape Convention (ELC) in 2000, greater importance has been given to citizen participation in landscape policies and, specifically, in defining landscape quality objectives (LQO). Although the task of identifying and defining LQO is undertaken by professionals, the ELC provides for a compulsory public consultation. In most cases, no clear relationship between the results of public participation and the resulting definition of LQO and planning scenarios has been found. The objective of the present study is therefore to propose a methodology for designing landscape planning scenarios and defining LQO by the systematic, objective and quantified analysis of the results of a public participation process and taking advantage of the capacity of a Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) to capture public perception of landscape. The results of a picture-based survey and of the assessment of more than two thousand landscape scenes through the PPGIS allowed us to calculate indices of satisfaction and of the level of intervention required for each landscape type and area. From the values of these indices, four types of landscape planning scenarios were identified (protection, planning and management focused on protection and on planning), and the LQO for each landscape type and area were determined according to the resulting scenario. Application of the proposed methodology to the Landscape Guidelines for Galicia revealed information about the public perception of each landscape type and the preferred measures for landscape improvement involving protection, management and planning.     

Perception and use of landscape concepts in the procedure of Environmental Impact Assessment: Case study—Switzerland and Romania

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) defines landscape as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. Because all aspects linked to landscape are evaluated during the Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) procedure, we assessed the Swiss and Romanian experts’ perception and EIA reports regarding the landscape concept. Therefore, we analysed Swiss and Romanian experts’ perception of landscape, we evaluated concepts and methods used in environmental impact reports to assess landscape characteristics and functions, and how the ELC's aim and objectives are reflected by the EIA reports.The Canonical Correspondence Analysis performed to evaluate the experts’ perception of landscape integration in the EIA procedure showed a significant relationship among pattern of answers and experts’ professional background. Moreover, there is a significant difference between Swiss and Romanian expert's perception. Longer experience in the field and a higher level of education indicates higher awareness of landscape characteristics and properties, which demonstrates that alongside with the initial training, there is a need for developing a coherent long-life learning systems having landscape analysis as a focus.The ELC is familiar to nearly 86% of the Romanian Environmental Impact Assessment actors and nearly 29% of the Swiss experts. By contrast, most of the Romanian EIA reports analysed do not employ many concepts of the ELC, while most of the Swiss environmental reports incorporate objectives of landscape protection consistent with the Convention.Our study relies on the comparative investigation of representative case studies of Environmental Impact Assessment reports for industry, local infrastructures, tourism facilities, and wind farm projects, as well on tracking how the European Landscape Convention is reflected by the EIA reports. We found that EIA reports from both countries evaluate the visual landscape, thus, achieving subjective assessment of landscape aesthetics without focusing on social and ecological sub-systems. Quantitative elements of landscape analysis are mostly absent and it is challenging to evaluate whether environmental assessments are consistent among European Landscape Convention countries.To overcome the abstract way of evaluation of project's impact on landscape through EIA procedure, an improved landscape analysis procedure is needed and we propose developing technical guidelines, under the European Landscape Convention umbrella, in order to enhance landscape management.     

Understanding rural landscape for better resident-led management: Residents’ perceptions on rural landscape as everyday landscapes

The rural landscape is “the dwelling place” of rural residents who generate a unique landscape through their daily activities. In order to strengthen the resident-led landscape management in rural areas, this study intends to gauge how and to what extent such rural landscapes are unique, as these landscapes are not easily appraised by existing landscape assessments that rely mainly on visual criteria, and suggest residents’ perception should be consider in the landscape planning. To conduct this study, residents’ subjective perceptions, in contrast with experts’ perceptions, were collected via a survey method referred to as photo-elicitation with walking. The survey revealed various everyday landscape objects perceived by the residents as meaningful, as well as scenes where visual characteristics were prominent. The results of survey also demonstrated that the residents are relatively insensitive to the visual and physical characteristics of landscapes objects, while sensitive to the “relationship” with the landscapes formed through the residents’ experiences. This pattern of sensitivity appears to be linked to the residents’ consideration of the landscape as a kinetic “dwelling place” rather than a static image. This pattern can be regarded as the reason residents perceive meaning in everyday landscapes. The results of this study suggest that by interpreting rural landscapes as everyday landscapes, landscape planning and management could be adapted to fit the needs and perceptions of rural residents and could, therefore, provide a basis for sustainable resident-led landscape management methods in connection with the everyday lives of rural residents.     

Bridging the gap between research and planning practice concerning landscape in Swedish infrastructural planning

A number of government documents provide for the fact that the surrounding landscape is to be considered when any infrastructure is built in Sweden. However, only certain aspects of the landscape are dealt within the various types of documents involved in the planning process. There has been considerable research into landscape, both in Sweden and abroad; unfortunately, however, this research has not been utilized by infrastructure planners. This paper discusses the reasons for this gap between research and planning practice as regards landscape, as well as problems with current infrastructure sector efforts concerning the landscape. Furthermore, the paper proposes ways in which current working methods can be changed by improving knowledge of the character of landscapes, a matter that is a structural element of the European Landscape Convention (ELC).     

Is land cover an important asset for addressing the subjective landscape dimensions?

This paper explores which physical landscape components relate to subjective landscape dimensions. The ways in which people describe their surrounding cultural landscape was analyzed through an assessment of their representations of it. A special focus was placed on assessing the role of land cover as a means to communicate landscape meanings regarding a specific geographical region. The methodological framework was built on the basis of a questionnaire survey, multivariate statistical analysis and mapping approaches. This research shows that there is a set of physical landscape components that relate to subjective landscape dimensions which can be disclosed through the assessment of social representations. Enhancing and safeguarding those physical landscape components associated with the subjective landscape dimensions are important aspects in both framing and targeting land cover/use policies and decision making. Results also suggest that land cover can be understood as an important asset for describing landscapes as more than 30% of respondents referred to it when asked to represent the case study region of Alentejo in southern Portugal. This might mean that in addition to objective ecological and biological functions, land cover is also an important asset for evaluating subjective landscape dimensions in line with place attachment and landscape identity. Finally, the ways in which the empirical material gathered here can be used to inform policy and planning are explored.     

Awareness-raising of landscape in practice. An analysis of Landscape Character Assessments in England

Awareness-raising is one of the measures which signatories to the European Landscape Convention are expected to realise, yet it is unclear what awareness-raising entails when related to an ambiguous subject such as landscape. Our study builds a conceptual understanding of awareness-raising of landscape, recognising that it cannot be a purely top-down process but needs to be seen as a “multi-directional transfer of knowledge” or “co-creation of meaning”. We have used this conceptual understanding as a lens for analysing practices which in some form help raise awareness of landscape. Document studies of Landscape Character Assessments undertaken in England since 2007 and interviews with key actors involved in Landscape Character Assessments were carried out in order to understand how awareness-raising is addressed. The findings suggest that while often overlooked or recognised as a top down endeavour landscape assessments have potential to develop co-creation of meaning.     

Indicators for assessing changing landscape character of cultural landscapes in Flanders (Belgium)

The increasing pace and scale of landscape change initiated a renewed interest in cultural and heritage values of the landscape. Efforts are made in inventorying, monitoring, and evaluating landscapes, needed for developing management and conservation plans, and also new concepts emerged. Landscape character became a new paradigm, as well as time depth and landscape change trajectory or path. Also, the use of landscape indicators for describing character and assessing changes has been widely tested. In Flanders, the rich landscape diversity is degrading rapidly due to extreme urban pressure and severe fragmentation by transport infrastructures. In this study a series of spatial data layers was used to describe and map the transformation of landscape character. Historical topographical maps and orthophotomaps from different periods were used to define landscape character types, which were mapped as polygons in a GIS. Map overlaying allowed analyzing the time depth and landscape constancy. The landscape character types were used as patches for the spatial and structural analysis and defining indicators of character change. A selection of class and landscape-based landscape metrics were used as such indicators, as well as the openness of the landscape. This selection was based upon the presumed relationship between the indicator and perceivable (visual) properties relating to landscape character. The landscape indicators express change very differently and several indicators are necessary to assess changes in the landscape character.     

The struggle to achieve holistic landscape planning: Lessons from planning the E6 road route through Tanum World Heritage Site,Sweden

Since the EU introduced the European Landscape Convention (ELC) in 2000, the landscape has received growing attention in spatial planning and environmental impact assessments. To promote implementation of the ELC, the Swedish National Heritage Board proposed its Landscape Vision 2020, which addresses the goal of a ‘holistic landscape policy’. This study examined challenges and benefits brought by such a holistic approach to handling landscape protection/management within four issues in planning practice, namely cross-sector cooperation, local participation, integrating culture and nature, and bridging past and future. The analysis focused on a controversial road project passing through a World Heritage Site in Sweden. The results showed that the four issues were closely interlinked. In the case study, a new wave of cross-sector cooperation at authority level was observed, but it was also found to dominate the entire planning process and eventually limit the achievement of the other three issues. In conclusion, this study identified institutional culture and political context as key explanatory factors for understanding how the ELC and a holistic landscape view can be implemented in national practice.     

Transdisciplinary landscape planning: Does the public have aspirations? Experiences from a case study in Ghent (Flanders,Belgium)

Since the end of the last century, the focus in landscape policy is shifting from traditional top-down perspectives into a bottom-up and integrated approach involving participation of local stakeholders. Keywords in the European Landscape Convention (ELC) include participation and awareness-raising: the public should be involved and their aspirations towards landscape should be assessed. This evolution in policy went with a new paradigm in landscape research: transdisciplinarity. Despite this evolution, literature indicates the necessity of a more general use of methods for public participation in landscape planning to meet the objectives of the Convention. The present paper explores ways to involve ‘the local people’ and to grasp their aspirations with regard to the landscape features of their surroundings. Point of departure is a questionnaire combining questions on landscape preference, environmental worldview and behaviour in the landscape. The questionnaire was distributed in a spatially stratified sample amongst inhabitants of the city of Ghent. The survey was set up without any connection to a concrete operational project that could convince respondents to participate. The response rate was relatively large despite a rather demanding questionnaire. More isolated target groups such as people with lower income, lower education level, and retired people were included, but foreigners, despite being a substantial part of the urban population, did not respond. The respondents appeared to be rather homogeneous as regards environmental worldview and aspirations in the landscape. It appeared that environment and landscape were not clearly distinguished between by the respondents. These results yield some suggestions for transdisciplinary landscape policy. A careful design of the sampling can enhance number and diversity of the respondents. Yet, it is equally important to develop a common language to communicate about landscape so that the question items can be clearly phrased and understood. Aspirations towards landscape should be defined more unambiguously so that they can be assessed alike. Awareness-raising for landscape may help to increase the number of local people that feel addressed when talking about landscape. When public support for landscape policy and management is taken seriously, more factors than only landscape should be taken into consideration.     

“This is what we did last time”. Uncertainty over landscape analysis and its procurement in the Swedish road planning process

In some European countries, landscape analysis has long been used in support of large-scale planning or major projects such as new trunk roads and mainline rail routes, in line with both the UN's Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment and the European Landscape Convention. Some countries, however, lack a regulatory framework for what should be analysed, how a landscape analysis should be conducted, or even how it should be procured. Sweden is one such country. The research project on which this article is based uses in-depth interviews with twelve key Swedish officials to consider landscape analysis issues in the planning and procurement of road and railway infrastructure. The findings point to the fact that skilled transport planners are not entirely comfortable with the current situation, and the way landscape analysis is handled in daily planning practice varies enormously. For example, nearly all the respondents believe that the way formal landscape analyses are procured is important, not least to ensure quality, yet at the same time they are rarely commissioned separately, even when this is explicitly stipulated by the regulations. There is no generally accepted notion of what ‘landscape’ might be, and the terms in which respondents describe the landscape do not correspond to the official landscape terminology as set down in the ELC.     

高校校园土地利用与景观格局分析研究

为讨论西北农林科技大学校园景观布局的优劣,对今后规划工作提供依据,以CAD校园平面图和高清遥感影像为基础资料,采用独创性的景观划分法,利用ArcMap获取南北校区校园土地利用与景观格局的空间分布,并运用各类景观指标,对景观格局进行定量分析。结果表明:南校区各景观的破碎度均大于北校,而优势度偏低;就全校范围来看,多样性、均匀度、优势度最大的分别为生活景观(1.858)、绿地景观(0.97)、娱乐景观(0.617),娱乐景观的均匀度最低,绿地景观的优势度最小;北校区的建筑设施(包括教学、生活、娱乐、附属设施)对景观的支配作用较大,南校区各景观受人为因素影响较大。简而言之,全校景观空间格局分布合理,功能区划协调统一。     

Evaluating municipal landscape plans and their influence on selected aspects of landscape development – An empirical study from Germany

In this paper we examine the question of whether and how municipal landscape plans exert a positive influence on and/or correlate with selected aspects of the landscape. To this end, a representative sample of municipal landscape plans in Germany and a statistical-quantitative evaluation approach are used to uncover correlations between planning and landscape development. As a result, we can show that municipalities which draw up a landscape plan have a higher proportion of natural areas and a lower hemeroby index, i.e. a lower level of human influence. The model also reveals a significant relationship between the quality of the landscape plan as well as its duration of impact and the density of landscape structural elements. It is also determined that municipal landscape plans help protect grassland areas. The indicator-based method provides impulses for the international discussion on the evaluation of plans.     

A method for analysing and planning rural built-up landscapes: The case of Sardinia,Italy

The implementation of the European Landscape Convention has paved the way for innovative tools able to analyse scattered and medium-small size elements, far beyond the usual isolated relevant landmarks. In this context, planners have been confronted with the problem of defining those characteristics of rural landscapes which are typical of agricultural and forestry activities and ecosystems. The specific focus on rural landscapes has attracted the interest of international scientists. They have approached the question from many perspectives, but have rarely analysed the interplay between landscapes, buildings, and settlements. In this paper we design and apply a method which is able to define, analyse and plan built-up rural landscapes. This method is based on organizing qualitative and quantitative landscape information in fact sheets, a tool that was often used in the last generation of landscape atlases in Italy. We have investigated three landscape units in Sardinia, Italy, one of the first administrations to approve a regional landscape plan which conformed with the European Landscape Convention. Our evidence demonstrates that the method is powerful, as it helps in the identification of the main characteristics of each rural built-up landscape and the drafting of general planning propositions. In particular, the method proves useful in stressing the cross-fertilization between building types and the shape of the rural landscapes: single story buildings on plains and multi-story buildings in mountainous areas. While the method is clearly influenced by the European Landscape Convention and the Italian local regulations, it is based on general principles and can be applied, with proper adaptations, to other cases worldwide.     

The use of latent classes to identify individual differences in the importance of landscape dimensions for aesthetic preference

Most literature in landscape perception and preference has focused on aesthetic preference by (groups of) people. Factors that could influence the aesthetic preference, such as landscape dimensions and observer's background characteristics, are far less examined. This may be due to the increasing complexity of the dataset, when variation both in landscape attributes and respondents’ characteristics is to be included in the models. The complex multivariate analysis models that emerge require more sophisticated statistical analysis. Also, the conclusions that result from the traditional analysis sound like, e.g. experts show lower preferences than nonexperts, which is rather deterministic and leaves no room for fuzziness. Latent class analysis provides an opportunity to include fuzziness, by only probabilistically assigning respondents in a latent class in function of the respondent's characteristics. The present paper explores the use of latent class analysis to determine individual differences in the importance appended to several landscape dimensions for landscape aesthetic preference. A questionnaire survey was executed in a spatially stratified sample amongst inhabitants of the city of Ghent (Flanders, Belgium). Latent preference classes are identified of which the cases vary in the level of importance attached to landscape characteristics for aesthetic preference. Care and disturbance appear to have larger effect on preference than naturalness and urbanisation. The effect of care and disturbance on landscape aesthetic preference also most significantly distinguishes between the latent preference classes. The importance of openness for aesthetics is small and not significantly dependent on the individual background of the observer. Respondents’ characteristics that affect the probability of belonging to a latent preference class are environmental behaviour and attitude, actual living environment, age class, education level, and organisation membership. Understanding the basis for differences in landscape preference may respond to tastes and aspirations of the general public, putting landscape planning in the broader context of society.     

Local residents’ perceptions of energy landscape: the case of transmission lines

Although the transmission line network is relatively comprehensive in many countries, there are new needs to develop the networks due to the increased consumption of energy and new decentralized energy sources. However, compared with other large-scale infrastructure in the landscape, there has been relatively little research on the perceptions of transmission lines. Consequently, the aim of this study was to analyse how transmission lines are perceived in comparison with other landscape elements and how the perceptions of existing transmission lines differ from those concerning new lines. Finally, the heterogeneity of the perceptions was examined with the aid of the latent class method. The study was based on survey data from an urban fringe community in southern Finland. The results confirmed the presupposition that transmission lines are generally perceived as negative landscape elements, both when long-established and when new. However, the perceptions among the residents were heterogeneous. This heterogeneity was explained with environmental attitudes and leisure activities as well as knowledge and land ownership. The results have implications for planning, public communication and participation related to transmission lines, as well as other visually dominating man-made structures in the landscape.     

3S技术在景观生态学中的应用研究概述

景观生态学是研究景观尺度上的生态学问题;3S技术是景观生态学的重要技术支撑它为景观生态学研究提供了极为有效的一系列工具,成为资料收集、存储、处理和分析所不可缺少的手段;对当前国内外利用3S技术在景观数据的获取、景观空间格局分析、景观生态监测、评价与管理、景观空间模拟、景观生态规划等方面的应用研究进行了概述,旨在为3S技术在景观生态学中的广泛应用起一定的推动作用。     

Landscapes with history: Addressing shortcomings in Swedish EIAs

Sixteen EU member states have ratified the European Landscape Convention (ELC), which works parallel to the EU's Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) directives. The ELC defines landscape and emphasizes the importance of public dialogue and identifying, analysing, and assessing the landscape. Researchers are dissatisfied with how landscape is treated in EIAs; to address this, the paper focuses on the retrospective historical view, landscape change, and public participation. I reviewed ten Swedish road and railroad EIAs, noting deficiencies in how they describe and analyze landscape. Furthermore, efforts to make the landscape more comprehensible to the public in EIAs or consultations could be improved. These problems arise from professional planners’ lack of appropriate tools combined with their traditional working methods. Swedish researchers have stressed the lack of appropriate tools for describing and analyzing the landscape in EIAs. This paper presents an applied tool developed to improve visual understanding of the landscape's historical dimensions and how they change, focusing on visualization to facilitate public consultation. The tool also helps planners better harmonize new infrastructure with the surrounding landscape. The tool combines the matching of historical artworks and maps with current photographs and field visits, providing comprehensive “before” versus “now” overviews of landscapes.     

Local participation in cultural landscape maintenance: Lessons from Sweden

Local participation has evolved as a strategy in the conservation and maintenance of biological and cultural values in cultural landscapes. The meaning(s) of the concept, however, are fuzzy, and conditions for fruitful implementation have only been investigated to a limited extent. In this article, a couple of Swedish cases serve as points of departure for a better understanding of the prerequisites and critical aspects as regards an increased local involvement in landscape management. A review of research on community participation reveals some essential aspects; power relations, participants, the institutional framework, organisation, communication, knowledge building, monitoring and contextual factors. These aspects have formed the structure for the analysis of two cases within which local involvement is considered successful; Southern Öland, where community involvement in seminatural grassland management has been experienced in LIFE-projects and in the process of becoming a UNESCO World heritage site, and Mälarhagar, an integrated restoration and beef production project carried out in close collaboration with farmers. The results are discussed in terms of successful ingredients, counterproductive aspects and operational difficulties. The findings show that trust, communication and local influence are vital ingredients in a participatory approach. Communication and co-management are pointed out as central areas of competence for executives working with landscape management and planning. There are, however, collisions between directives concerning nature conservation and directives concerning public participation. For successful local involvement, the subject for collaboration has to be broadly defined. Furthermore, the strong emphasis on collaboration in participatory approaches demands that democratic aspects have to be considered.     

Agricultural landscape dynamics in response to economic transition: Comparisons between different spatial planning zones in Ningbo region,China

Many major agricultural regions worldwide are experiencing drastic landscape transformations. Examining the complex links among agricultural landscape dynamics (ALD), land use and land cover (LULC) change, socioeconomic development and government planning is pivotal to enhance the efficiency of agricultural landscape management. With a case of the Ningbo region (China), this paper employs the structural equation modeling (SEM) to quantify and compare the relationships between ALD and economic transition as well as the mediating LULC factors in different spatial planning zones. ALD are quantified by time series remotely sensed imageries and a set of landscape metrics; and economic transition is described by a set of indicators from three aspects (globalization, decentralization and marketization). Results show that ALD present similar trend in the two spatial planning zones between 1979 and 2013. However, the magnitude of ALD is larger in the non-urban planning zone. In particular, agricultural landscapes change into the fragmented, irregular, decreased, and isolated patterns at a more rapid pace. Economic transition drivers and LULC mediators differ remarkably between the two spatial planning zones. For the urban planning zone, economic transition influences ALD through construction land morphological changes and water body spatial density increases. For the non-urban planning zone, economic transition influences ALD through forest morphological changes and construction land spatial density increases. In addition, the relative importance of ALD determinants differs between the two spatial planning zones. Marketization plays a more critical role in driving ALD in the urban planning zone, while decentralization has a stronger impact on ALD in the non-urban planning zone. It is argued that land use master plan for agricultural landscape protection should be implemented in the non-urban planning zones and land use plan in the two spatial planning zones should be integrated. This study contributes to the understanding of the complex mechanism of ALD in response to economic transition.