The volunteer matrix: positioning of volunteer organizations

• In the fierce competition that volunteer involving organizations face nowadays over people's willingness to donate their time, marketing strategies should be used. In order to enhance the organization's recruitability (ability to recruit suitable volunteers), it is important for volunteer organizations to understand what the positioning of the organization is and the type of volunteering that is being offered. In the current article we suggest using a marketing tool to increase the ability to recruit volunteers: positioning and perceptual mapping. Our perceptual mapping – the volunteer matrix is based on two dimensions: price (different costs attached to the volunteer experience) and quality (the overall quality of the volunteering experience). Thus, the matrix includes four different positions, and we demonstrate the manners in which different volunteer organizations or roles are positioned in each. Discussed are also the possible implementations of the matrix in order to recruit suitable volunteers and retain them.

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Internal competition in a nonprofit museum context: development of a scale

• External competition and marketing have been extensively researched in the for-profit environment and to a lesser extent in the nonprofit environment. However, the concept of competition within a nonprofit organization is indicative of another type of competition, that of ‘internal competition’. Internal competition, operating in the nonprofit's endemic environment of scarce resources, takes place between departments, between individuals, and even within individuals in terms of time and energy spent on differing objectives. Internal competition manifests itself as internal conflicts over not only objectives but also the means for achieving the objectives. This research examines the construct of ‘internal competition’ in the museum portion of the nonprofit sector where marketing is often seen as a ‘necessary but evil’ tool essential for survival. Museum retailing, which has taken on an increasingly vital role in the financial support of museums, offers an opportunity to analyze the nature of internal competition and for developing a scale for measuring internal competition.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Motivations and forms of corporate giving behaviour: insights from Australia

• Although corporate support for many nonprofit organisations (NPOs) represents only a relatively small component of their overall income its importance is growing. As a consequence, the need to understand corporate giving behaviour in a way that supports the development of strategically targeted and successful marketing campaigns is of growing importance to marketing managers in many NPOs around the globe.
• This paper presents the findings of a study into the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of corporate giving behaviour in Australia. In the seven case studies examined, there was no strong evidence that Australian corporations give for other than strategic profit maximisation or political reasons. In contrast to the literature, altruistic and managerial utility did not emerge as strong motivational factors.
• This study also found that corporations are likely to have a number of corporate giving programmes each with its own underlying motivation and strategic purpose which network together to form a hierarchy of corporate giving programmes.
• The paper concludes by discussing the implications of this research for NPO managers attempting to increase their level of corporate support.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring conspicuousness in the context of donation behaviour

• The study of donation behaviour has been significant in recent years as charitable organisations realise the value of marketing strategies in order for growth and survival. Consequently, in recent years the growing trend, to increase awareness of charities and generate much-needed funds, has been the sale of empathy ribbons and the like (e.g. red noses etc.). However, it is argued that the motivation behind the purchase of empathy ribbons is largely ostentatious rather than altruistic and, thus, is viewed under the broader umbrella of ‘conspicuous compassion’ (West, 2004). As such, this paper documents a conceptualization of monetary donation behaviour which we term ‘conspicuous donation behaviour’ and, in doing so, we provide a number of research propositions which pre-empt new avenues for future research.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mission or money? Competitive challenges facing public sector nonprofit organisations in an institutionalised environment

• This paper exposes the impact of competitive grant funding on public sector nonprofit volunteer organisations, using institutional theory to explain developments within this sector. A conceptual model is developed from which five propositions are derived. Bushcare units, in experiencing institutional pressures, respond in ways that affect their culture, structure and routines, resulting in the possibility that their mission will be compromised. In the process of targeting competitive grants, preparing grant applications, managing increased reporting requirements and recruiting volunteers, Bushcare units should apply a mission ‘filter’ to ensure their mission is not compromised in the pursuit of money. Bushcare New South Wales (NSW), an Australian environmental organisation, provides an empirical illustration of the proposed conceptual model.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Volunteer tourism as an emerging trend or an expansion of ecotourism? A look at potential clients' perceptions of volunteer tourism organisations

• Volunteer tourism (VT) has recently been proposed as an alternative to ecotourism to link tourism and nature conservation. It is believed that VT represents an emerging tourism sector for vacationers who want to make a difference during their holidays. This investigation questions this belief using potential tourists' perceptions of volunteer tourism organisations.
• Through a multiple sorting procedure, respondents interpreted the promotional material of volunteer tourism organisations to describe this form of tourism and differentiate between organisations. The results suggested that respondents distinguish between organisations offering a volunteering experience and a holiday experience.
• Furthermore, the respondent's level of familiarity with expedition activities was important, as respondents with a high level of familiarity seek different benefits from their experience. The study suggests that volunteer tourism is a diverse sector, with different emphases on holiday and volunteering elements.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How responsive are charities to market needs?

Voluntary organisations have a unique set of stakeholders. Their services are paid for, not by their customers, but by ‘purchasers’ such as social services or grant-making trusts. This separation of customers from purchasers denies voluntary organisations a direct market mechanism for feedback on their services. As a result, charities are in danger of providing outdated poor-quality services for years, while convincing purchasers that they are still doing a good job. This paper examines the extent to which voluntary organisations do in fact respond to market needs, despite their undemanding environment. The paper draws on research from 15 national disability charities to explore the extent to which charities are market orientated, and to identify examples of best practice in the field. The paper concludes by identifying the critical role played by charity chief executives in urging their own organisations to adopt marketing principles. Copyright © 1999 Henry Stewart Publications     

An investigation into the values dimensions of branding: implications for the charity sector

• Branding is being adopted by charities and written about in academic and practitioner charity literature with increasing frequency. There is also growing concern, however, about the over-commercialistion of the sector and the misappropriation of techniques developed specifically for the commercial environment. Literature supporting the claim that charities are values-based organisations is reviewed and the proposition is made that it is in fact the non-negotiability of charity values that differentiate them from commercial organisations. Given the significance of values in the charity sector, the paper argues that a clearer understanding of how values are conceptualised in branding is necessary in order to establish whether branding is an appropriate and effective tool in the charity context. To achieve this, the paper reviews relevant branding literature focusing in particular upon the delineation of the values dimensions identified in for-profit branding models. To aid further understanding of these values dimensions in the non-profit context and their applicability (or otherwise) to it, the metaphors of brand as ‘mirror’, ‘lamp’ and ‘lens’ are introduced.
• It is argued that in the corporate sector the brand concept has been utilised to ‘mirror’ those values that underpin the needs and desires of consumers. In contrast to the passive mirror, when operationalised as ‘lamp’, it is claimed that the brand aims to influence both the values of the organisation and the values of its target audience. It is postulated that neither of these approaches is appropriate for values-led organisations and that it is only as a metaphorical ‘lens’, projecting the values of the organisation itself that branding offers an applicable and effective model in the charity context.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Positively negative: the impact of negativity upon the political consumer

• For years there has been an ongoing debate as to the role and impact that ‘marketing’ has had on politics. Yet, it is the case that many of the concepts associated with the field of marketing have real relevance and have, in fact, been employed within the field of political campaigning for many decades. This is an empirical paper that focuses upon the concept of political brands and the impact that current trends in campaign strategy, and in particular the growth and continued use of negative campaigning, have upon them. Using a constructivist grounded theory approach, the implications associated with such activity are examined and, in particular, its effect upon the consumer/brand relationship.
• Within the consideration of the results, it becomes clear that political brands' use of negative campaigning is somewhat shortsighted; offering short‐term gains but at the cost of long‐term damage not only to their brand image but also to the wider democratic system as it stands. In a search for political ‘brands’ that more effectively meet their needs, there appears a tendency for political consumers to now look outside of the conventional political sector. The emergent concept of the ‘negative brand’ is explored together with the implications for political consumers, political brands and the wider field of conventional party politics.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Celebrity altruism: the good,the bad and the ugly in relationships with fundraising charities

• Enlisting or retaining the support of celebrity volunteers is a crucial element in the fundraising and communications strategies for many third sector organisations. But whilst there is a plethora of literature on volunteer motivations, there has been little exploration of the relationships between celebrity volunteers and the charities that they support. Furthermore, the limited theory that exists appears to be based on the experiences of fundraisers and other media specialists with little primary research on attitudes of celebrities themselves. This paper therefore considers celebrity/charity relationships on the basis of existing volunteer motivation theory and attitudinal data from a sample of 208 celebrity volunteers associated with a major fundraising charity in the UK. The findings indicate that the motivation of celebrity volunteers may be much closer to those of other charity volunteers than might be expected from other literature on celebrities. In addition, the study found that amongst other factors, celebrity volunteers typically prefer their engagements to be simplistic and expedient in nature, but that where possible, the engagement activity should be fun and rewarding. It also reveals that individual motives for supporting charities are varied in nature and range from purely altruistic tendencies at one end of the continuum to egoistic motives at the other. In addition, the study indicates that factors such as security and trust in the endorsed organisation are a key motivating factor for many.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pledger modelling: Help the Aged case study

• The recruitment of pledgers (as a proxy for potential legators) to charitable organisations plays a vital role in their continued success, and as a percentage of all fundraising income generated it can represent substantial proportions. However, of all the ‘donation asks’ made of supporters, asking for a legacy is the most difficult. Therefore, it is important that the target audience should be as well researched and highly targeted as possible.
• Help the Aged had reached the stage where decisions need to be made about its future marketing in order to protect longer-term income. The findings of this legacy targeting project were to feed into communication programmes, direct marketing, and the overall legacy marketing strategy.
• The key objective was to identify the best prospects to mail a legacy ask to, across the supporter database, with the likelihood that they are going to pledge as a result.
• It was found that whilst tailored data analysis comes at a price, the average value of a legacy justifies the cost of using sophisticated targeting tools. However, because of the pledge-to-legacy time lapse, there will always be issues with measuring any long-term return on investment (ROI). Nonetheless, pledgers have to be taken on their word for the purpose of testing (and subsequent rollouts). Pledge data should be tested and the outcomes should inform legacy marketing. However, as mentioned above, pledgers necessarily need to be taken on their word and therefore, formulating models based on the type and/or value of pledges is not recommended.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘We're still the same people’: developing a mass media campaign to raise awareness and challenge the stigma of dementia

• A popular awareness‐ and fund‐raising vehicle for charities and non‐profit organisations is the annual ‘Day’ or ‘Week’ campaign. Such campaigns can be challenging because they often involve multiple, potentially competing objectives, not least the requirement to balance the needs of the general public with the those who already have, or are caring for someone with, a particular condition. This paper reports on formative research conducted in Scotland to inform the development of an awareness‐raising campaign on the issue of dementia, which had two key aims: to raise awareness of the condition among the general public, and to reduce the stigma associated with it. Social marketing consumer research was conducted with three key groups—the general public, carers and people with dementia‐to explore their beliefs and perceptions about dementia and their information needs. The research highlights the importance of providing realistic and credible images of people with dementia to the general public and the importance of avoiding instilling fear of the condition. Guidance for future awareness‐raising activity in this area is provided.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Artists' attitudes to marketing: a cross-cultural perspective

• Although the music industry is dominated by a few global players, the vast majority of musical performances are by nonprofit organisations, self-employed musicians or small and medium enterprises (SMEs). But, while a great deal has been written about the marketing of music—distribution, branding, audience development, etc.—comparatively little is known about the attitudes of musicians themselves to marketing, despite the fact their role as both product and producer is so central to the musical experience.
• The research sets out to gain an understanding of this neglected topic by undertaking a cross-cultural analysis of musicians from two different cultures: it compares the attitudes of artists in a mature, post-industrial economy (UK) with those in a post-communist, emerging democracy (Poland). The research finds that society, culture and the economic environment appear to shape attitudes far less than art itself. Across both cultures the research discovers at best an ambivalence towards marketing, and at worst a general antipathy towards the whole notion of art-as-business.
• The implications of these findings, if replicated across other countries, other musical genres and across the arts as a whole, could be worrying. Historically, the arts have been dominated by nonprofit organisations funded at least in part by public and private subsidies, funds which are being substantially eroded in both mature economies and in developing nations. The challenge for nonprofits and SMEs in the arts, then, is about achieving some sort of engagement with business and marketing, without losing their artistic integrity in the process.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using creativity to achieve an entrepreneurial future for arts marketing

• The marketing concept fails to explain marketing behaviour of small firms. Similar comments are now being made of large firms. This gap between theory and practice is even more significant in non-profit and arts organisations where sector specific philosophies often determine how marketing is embraced, with its underlying notions of the customer and profitability. Many of these organisations must overcome severe resource constraints by thinking creatively. This paper investigates the relationship between art, marketing, entrepreneurship and creativity in order to reach a clearer understanding of how creativity can assist both the arts organisation and those involved in researching the sector. There have been increasing calls within the academic marketing community to instil a creative philosophy within the research process. This call has not resulted in much research on the phenomenon within marketing, and certainly not from a nonprofit perspective. This paper discusses creativity as a concept drawing on a diverse range of literatures outside the management discipline. The link between creativity, marketing, entrepreneurship and art is analysed. Justification of the incorporation of creativity in the research process is presented for practitioners and theorists in marketing and the arts, so that they can learn from each others' disciplines. Implications for future research are presented, where creativity is viewed as the centre of a non-linear, free thinking understanding of artistic truth.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The functions and norms that drive university student volunteering

• Young adult volunteers are vital to the current and future operations of nonprofit organizations yet many countries report low and declining volunteer participation by this group. Moreover, university students are a particularly under‐utilized and under‐researched segment of potential young adult volunteers. As such, the current study examines the functions and norms that drive university students to volunteer. A survey of 282 students indicates that the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) does not adequately explain the volunteering of today's university students. For instance, t‐tests reveal that the importance of the VFI functions among current students differs significantly to the importance of the functions among the previous generation of students. Also, factor analysis shows that the structure of the VFI model is unstable for the current sample while multiple regression reveals that the VFI explains only 11% of university student volunteering. In contrast, χ²‐tests indicate that volunteering by university students is dependent on the observed volunteering of primary reference group members (i.e., parents, siblings, close friends). The results suggest that nonprofit organizations may need to revise their recruitment strategies for today's university students: rather than appealing to the functional benefits of volunteering, positioning volunteering as the ‘normal’ thing to do may be more successful. Further research is needed to develop a richer understanding of reference group influences on the volunteering behavior of today's young adults.

Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Compliance with Producer Responsibility Legislation: Experiences from UK Small and Medium‐sized Enterprises

This study investigated the legal performance of UK small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) with producer responsibility legislation. The research incorporated legislation controlling packaging and packaging waste, waste electrical and electronic equipment and the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Compliance audits and interviews were conducted with SMEs, regulators, government officials and SME support organisations. A total of 44 SMEs from the north‐west of England were audited between April and September 2008. The study's findings suggest:

• low levels of ‘letter of the law’ and ‘spirit of the law’ compliance;
• enforcement activity and surveillance of SME compliance was generally low; there has not been any formal enforcement action taken under the WEEE Regulations or the RoHS Regulations and enforcement under the PER Regulations is extremely low.

Recommendations on how to improve SME compliance control systems are provided. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.     

What some recent research tells us about planned giving (legacy marketing) in North America

• The transformation of fundraising from an ‘emerging profession’ to a ‘true profession’ is contingent on the continual development of a formal body of knowledge based on theory and research. To further that goal, this paper, written from a Canadian perspective, reviews current and recent research studies in both Canada and the USA, focusing specifically on the areas of legacy marketing and bequest gifts.
• The aim of this paper is two-fold: first, to bring forward ‘established knowledge’ in this relatively new and burgeoning area of fundraising; and second, to draw attention to areas where there is a knowledge gap, thereby laying the groundwork for further research and progress in this area.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Creating customer value in the not‐for‐profit sector: a case study of the British Library

• Public sector organisations are being increasingly subjected to both legislative and competitive pressures forcing them to reconsider their relationships with users and customers (Chapman and Cowdell, 1998 ) in order to develop a more overt marketing orientation (defined as focusing on customer needs as the primary drivers of organisational performance (Jobber, 2004 )). The creation of customer value underlies the development of a meaningful marketing orientation, and is a nettle that more public sector and not‐for‐profit organisations will have to grasp. This article considers how a more marketing‐oriented approach was adopted by the British Library in order to clarify and communicate its value proposition to its identified target markets, and in doing so, hopefully achieving a sustainable competitive advantage on an ongoing basis.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Strategic task forces

Nonprofit organisations frequently face challenges that cannot be resolved by staff, board members and other volunteers. Marketing themselves, whether to build awareness and recognition, or more specifically to raise funds, is one such challenge. Another is the development of strong, highly networked new volunteers both to assist with specific issues and to serve later in other capacities. ‘Strategic task forces’ offer one way to address immediate needs but also can serve as a means of more strategically approaching marketing issues such as awareness and recognition among key decision makers. A case study and analysis are presented to demonstrate the use of strategic task forces and how they can be utilised to accomplish both tactical and strategic objectives at the same time. Copyright © 2002 Henry Stewart Publications