Stakeholder collaboration as a major factor for sustainable ecotourism development in developing countries

Ecotourism has been widely championed by academics and practitioners as a potential contributor of conservation and development. However, others have questioned whether sustainability goals can be achieved through this form of tourism. Of the various factors reported in the literature as hindering the success of ecotourism, the lack of effective stakeholder collaboration features prominently. This study draws upon stakeholder and collaboration theories and on triple-bottom-line principles, to investigate the contributions of stakeholder collaborations to sustainable ecotourism. The researchers adopted an exploratory research design and conducted stakeholder in-depth interviews and focus group discussions between 2016 and 2018. The findings revealed poor interactions and collaborations amongst ecotourism stakeholders. Consequently, ecotourism in Southern Ethiopia accelerates the degradation of natural resources, neglecting communities while benefiting other ecotourism stakeholders. Therefore, in poorly resourced and remote destinations, failure to empower and participate communities undermines ecotourism and jeopardizes the long-term survival of ecosystems and communities themselves.     

生态旅游概念识别及其比较研究--对中外40个生态旅游概念的定量分析

伴随着生态旅游的快速发展而涌现出的大量生态旅游概念使旅游研究者和旅游利益相关者对生态旅游概念产生了困惑.这种困惑使生态旅游的核心标准和规则在实际的应用中被扭曲和误用.本文运用内容分析的方法,通过对中外当代近10-15年内40个有影响力的生态旅游概念的分析,提炼出生态旅游概念架构所遵循的8个标准规则,它们是:以自然为基础、对保护的贡献、当地社区受益、环境教育、道德规范与责任、可持续性、旅游享受体验和文化.并以这些标准规则为基础,对中外生态旅游的概念进行比较,得出中国未来的生态旅游研究应更加关注旅游目的地管理的结论.     

从系统学角度透视生态旅游利益相关者结构关系

从系统动力学著名的"内生"理论角度分析,生态旅游可持续发展的关键就是要建立各利益相关者之间的利益均衡机制,从而形成一体化的共生系统.本文将政府、社区、保护区、旅游企业和生态旅游者五个主要利益相关者作为生态旅游系统中的内生变量,用系统动力学方法,分析协调利益获取和分配、权利和义务、生态耗损和补偿等问题,初步构建各利益相关者之间的结构关系,为建立协调各方利益的参与机制提供理论参考.     

Ecosystem Tourism: A Resource-based Philosophy for Ecotourism

Ecotourism has become a popular form of tourism development and marketing in the past ten years, often harnessing the growth in public concern over the wise use of natural resources. In most cases, however, impacts on the ecosystems that are the resource base for ecotourism products are either externalised or their consequences incorporated into the natural evolution of tourism products. This paper is an attempt to stimulate debate on the role that more holistic resource management should play in ecotourism developments. We contend that this can only be achieved through an understanding of ecological science. Credible ecotourism must be firmly based in scientific ecological principles that define ecosystem integrity, especially the resilience of ecosystem processes to disturbance. Such tolerance should be the fundamental measurement against which ecotourism products are monitored.We introduce the term 'ecosystem tourism' to summarise this agenda to define truly sustainable ecotourism development.     

Barriers to Ecotourism Supplier Success: A Comparison of Agency and Business Perspectives

Many small businesses catering to ecotourists' needs have emerged in response to an increasingly important ecotourism sector, but high turnover rates reduce benefits to owners, communities and visitors. The objective of this study was to compare agency and business perspectives on barriers affecting ecotourism suppliers. Understanding the similarities and differences between the views of agencies and businesses on ecotourism supplier success can help identify some fundamental steps needed to strengthen the ecotourism sector and to more effectively manage the natural resource base. Data were collected through key informant interviews of stakeholders associated with the ecotourism sector in Pennsylvania and Maryland in the United States. Key informants were business owners, tour operators and outfitters, state and local government personnel, natural resource managers working on public lands, and conservation leaders. Forty-five interviews were conducted. Data were qualitatively analyzed using content analysis. Qualitative Solutions and Research, Non-numerical Unstructured Data – Indexing, Searching and Theorising (QSR NUD*IST), a computer-based tool, was used to facilitate the content analysis. Results show that while agency and business interviewees agree on some barriers associated with the success of ecotourism suppliers, differences exist on their perspectives of providers' needs and ecotourism's role in the local economy.     

南岭国家森林公园旅游企业主导的社区参与模式研究

社区是生态旅游利益相关者的关键角色之一.本文在有关社区参与生态旅游的理论研究和文献综述的基础上,针对我国生态旅游社区参与的实残,选取具有代表性的南岭国家森林公园为案例,通过对当地社区、旅游企业及政府等相关利益主体及其相互关系的研究,提出了"旅游企业主导的社区参与模式",并探讨了该模式可持续运作的关键环节和优化模式.因子分析的结果进一步表明,社区主人翁意识、公共福利、教育培训机会以及经济收益等,是影响社区参与生态旅游的自主性和可持续性的重要因素.研究结果丰富了生态旅游社区参与的理论,并对我国生态旅游的社区实践具有一定的参考价值.     

Community views of ecotourism

Ecotourism can be an incentive for conservation, especially when it triggers positive economic change. Yet it introduces many changes to communities:positive and negative, social and economic. The full range of change is seldom evaluated in direct relation to conservation at the local level. In this study of three Amazon ecotourism projects, local leaders discussed changes from ecotourism in their communities. Economic benefits were mentioned, but so were new restrictions on time, decreased reciprocity, and social conflict. Other changes included heightened self-esteem and greater community organization. Such shifts should be considered in relation to conservation as they affect the stability of local institutions and the prospects for long-term collective action for resource management.     

The Natural State

ABSTRACT

Australian nature-based tourism and ecotourism have become popular forms of recreational activity. Tasmania attracts twice the Australian national average number of nature-based tourists and ecotourists (thirty per cent). The growth of this tourism sector has prompted measures to ensure that experiences are of high quality, and that environmental impacts are adequately managed. ISO 14000 is an environmental management and certification system often utilised as an environmental management system standard within various industries, but has not been widely applied to the Australian tourism industry. The Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) represents the most significant accreditation measure within Australia at present. This paper assesses the relevance of NEAP in the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through in-depth interviews with a key informant group and a comparative analysis of interview data. The paper introduces nature-based tourism and ecotourism definitions and discusses the growing relevance of ecotourism accreditation. The paper argues that NEAP is relevant to the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry, where the quality of the natural environment forms the central focus for such experiences. Furthermore, the paper argues that NEAP can assist in supporting the State's nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through means such as branding and promotion. However, problems exist in relation to financial issues between NEAP and operators, and the perceived overlap of NEAP with the widely implemented Tourism Council Tasmania Accreditation Program. Thus, financial issues need to be addressed by the Ecotourism Association of Australia in association with Australian Commonwealth Government subsidisation. The degree of overlap between the two programs can be effectively addressed through industry cooperation. The paper also suggests that stronger branding and promotion of NEAP can be achieved through increased industry involvement by Tourism Tasmania.     

Stakeholder Subjectives Toward Ecotourism Development using Q methodology: The Case of Maha Ecotourism Site in Pyeongchang,Korea

Ecotourism needs ecological sensitivity and respect for the ecological culture of local residents. From this perspective, listening to the opinion of local residents, collaborating with the local residents in conjunction with an appropriate governance structure, is of prime importance in ecotourism. However, many ecotourism sites have numerous problems because of conflicts among stakeholders such as local government and local residents. This study investigates the conflicts and the stakeholders’ subjectives in the case of Maha ecotourism site in Pyeongchang-gun, the site of the 2018 Winter Olympic games. Before the analysis, the conflicts seem to be caused by the different attitudes of government officials and local residents’ representatives. From the analysis of subjectives, the difference in attitudes is caused by generation gaps. Young people show relatively uniform attitudes, where different occupation sectors exert little influence. It means that conflicts can be decreased if more opportunities for council participation are allowed. Young people have few consideration about ecology and tradition. The ecological and traditional lessons of the older generation are needed for young people. This study shows that conflicts between development and conservation are caused by the different attitudes represented in different generation, and hence plans for harmonizing different generation should be considered.     

Heritage complexity and tourism: the case of Lumbini,Nepal

Differences in values, interests, expectations and priorities among stakeholders, a major source of dissonance, may create conflict in heritage and can be a challenge for its preservation and management. This study uses Lumbini, Nepal, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, to examine heritage complexity and tourism. Lumbini, one of the most important Buddhist sites for the world's 500 million Buddhists, is surrounded by a population of different faiths, mainly Hindus and Muslims. Locals, who are predominantly non-Buddhist, see the local patrimony more as an economic resource than spiritual one, whereas the government uses the site for building national pride, garnering international support and promoting tourism. Furthermore, despite its potential for attracting Western, regional and domestic tourists and a growing trend in arrivals, the community and the region have not benefited well from tourism. Although Lumbini is currently experiencing “latent dissonance,” this can be reduced through communication, cooperation and collaboration among various stakeholders.     

A Decommodified Experience? Exploring Aesthetic,Economic and Ethical Values for Volunteer Ecotourism in Costa Rica

Volunteer ecotourism has been described as an ‘ideal’ form of decommodified ecotourism that overcomes problems associated with tourism in general, and ecotourism specifically. Using a case study of volunteer ecotourism and sea turtle conservation in Costa Rica, this paper interrogates this ideal. Perceptions of volunteer ecotourism were explored through in-depth interviews with 36 stakeholders, including hosts, NGO staff, government employees, local ‘cabineros’ (families who provide accommodation) and guests (volunteers). Results show that while all stakeholder groups share similarly positive views of volunteer ecotourism, subtle but important differences exist. We analyse these differences in terms of aesthetic, economic, and ethical values, and situate the results in existing theories about the moralisation and decommodification of ecotourism.     

The community participation process in ecotourism development: a case study of the community of Sogoog,Bayan-Ulgii,Mongolia

Theories on community participation in ecotourism development advocate obtaining maximum levels of both community control and benefit to achieve sustainable tourism. This paper explores issues in community-based ecotourism development in a small, remote community in western Mongolia. It assesses the community's desire to develop ecotourism, their understanding of the issues involved and the feasibility of the process in a poor herding community, where 63% are herdsmen, frequently absent with their herds. Using responses from 100 participants together with interviews with key stakeholders, it describes and analyzes the difficulties in establishing community participation and ecotourism implementation. Findings revealed that long-term viable community-based ecotourism development in remote areas requires close collaboration and sustained support from trusted community leaders and from knowledgeable and committed outside stakeholders. Approaches need to be carefully tailored to local circumstances, not “one size fits all”. Key areas of concern were environmental and cultural, including fears that their tradition of hospitality might be compromised, perceptions of the local NGO's benefits to the community and local, often naïve, expectations of ecotourism development. Despite fears, over 90% of those interviewed were willing to participate in an ecotourism project in this high-risk, unforgiving economic and climatic setting.     

The Role of Private Wildlife Reserves in Nicaragua's Emerging Ecotourism Industry

Ecotourism promises to be the fastest growing segment of Nicaragua's fledgling tourist industry, which is already the country's second highest generator of foreign exchange. Development of a lucrative ecotourism industry offers a unique opportunity for Nicaragua to unify economic growth with natural resource stewardship in a single sustainable development strategy. However, as ecotourism is largely dependent on protected area systems, the current condition of Nicaragua's public protected area system is a major obstacle to the industry's development. Limited by inadequate public financing, the establishment of private wildlife reserves can compliment Nicaragua's under-developed public protected area system, further enhancing the desirability of Nicaragua as an ecotourist destination. The opportunities and constraints of private reserve establishment are examined in this study of Nicaragua's first legally recognised private wildlife reserve.     

迈向可持续目标的中国生态旅游发展研究

生态旅游是自然保护地体系建设、国土空间保护利用、美丽中国等重点生态文明工程建设的重要载体。本文对生态旅游发展研究进行了深入分析,探讨了迈向可持续发展目标下中国生态旅游发展研究需要关注的重点领域。研究认为：生态旅游对于联合国可持续发展目标（Sustainable Development Goals, SDG）实现具有多维促进作用,大众生态旅游在现代化管理制度、技术规范和生态文明的中国话语体系中具有较强的适用性。当代中国生态旅游发展具有与以往国外后工业化时期生态旅游完全不同的时代特点,外部环境和关联要素正在不断促使生态旅游发展寻求新的发展路径。自然生态、地域功能、承载能力和经济发展共同勾画出当代中国生态旅游的发展图景,未来研究需要建立以资源环境容量为底线、以生态游憩机会图谱和时空匹配为规律、以空间治理和现代化管控为提升、以强约束低损耗的政策和技术标准为配套的四位一体发展体系,从而为中国实现生态环境严格保护和经济社会可持续发展多元目标提供支撑。     

Ecotourism in Bako National Park,Borneo: Visitors’ Perspectives on Environmental Impacts and their Management

Ecotourism potentially provides a sustainable approach to development in Malaysia. However, to realise this potential the adverse effects of visitor activity and associated infrastructure on the natural environment and the tourism experience must be identified to guide management actions and thus to sustain the resources on which ecotourism ultimately depends. This study, conducted in Bako National Park on the island of Borneo, reports one of the first efforts to identify the impacts of ecotourism in Malaysia from the perspective of visitors. Environmental conditions of greatest influence on visitors’ experiences included litter and biophysical conditions such as soil erosion and vegetation damage. These conditions were of greater concern to visitors than social conditions, such as the number of people. These results suggest that management efforts can be directed towards indicators of greatest concern such as litter, soil erosion and vegetation damage. The broad support given by those surveyed for a range of management actions provides managers with a choice of strategies to sustain ecotourism in Bako National Park. This study, with its sociopolitical approach, contributes to a greater understanding of the implications of the ecotourist experience for ecotourism management in Malaysia.     

Ecotourism and indigenous micro-enterprise formation in northern Australia opportunities and constraints

Indigenous Australians suffer considerable social and economic disadvantage. The challenge for Indigenous communities and policy makers is to discover or create opportunities that will provide sustainable development. Tourism is seen as one sector that could possibly provide such opportunities. Indigenous tourism enterprises are in most situations likely to be micro businesses. Micro businesses, Indigenous and non-Indigenous, have relatively high failure rates so it is important to undertake substantial planning to avoid failure. This paper presents the results of a planning process undertaken by an Indigenous clan planning to operate their own ecotourism micro-enterprise within Ngukurr, an Indigenous community in northern Australia. The study highlights the fact tourism does provide potential for economic development because Indigenous enterprises often have some competitive advantages. In addition, the study highlights the fact that communities often do not have the capacity to undertake all the tasks necessary to establish and operate a commercially successful ecotourism enterprise. Partnerships with other stakeholders within the region can help overcome this constraint. Finally, it is noted that the CDEP scheme has the potential to satisfy the need for funds that cannot be satisfied through normal channels.     

如何发展社区生态旅游?--泰国Huay Hee村社区生态旅游(CBET)的经验

本文介绍了泰国HuayHee村社区生态旅游CBET(Community basedEco tourism)发展的过程和现状 ,认为要成功地发展CBET应该具备以下条件 :初期需要外界支持 ;逐步建立和完善村民的相关旅游组织 ;成立相应的旅游基金会 ,用于资源保护 ;各利益方要建立良好的合作关系 ,共同制定CBET产品发展计划 ;在CBET计划实施过程中要进行监测和评估。     

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest of Palenque: empowerment issues in sustainable development

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest has received little research attention. This study examines issues related to the level of empowerment in a Mayan village located near the Palenque World Heritage Site in southern Mexico. An adapted empowerment framework was used to assess community empowerment and its relationship with stakeholders’ participation by collecting the views of internal and external stakeholders in indigenous ecotourism. Using a checklist of 60 empowerment indicators, the study developed a wheel of empowerment tool that graphically illustrates and compares levels of empowerment/disempowerment in local communities. Results indicate that although there is a will from many villagers to participate in tourism, lack of knowledge, limited economic resources and the poor negotiation skills of local leaders have disempowered the community from undertaking ecotourism ventures. Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have not supported the community until recently, the private sector has played little part, and while the Mexican government is shaping the course of indigenous ecotourism with support programmes, state agencies have resisted local ecotourism development. Overall, the community fell below the midpoint on the Wheel of Empowerment Scale. These findings show a need for more effective empowerment strategies to maximise community involvement in managing cultural and natural resources for tourism development.     

A social representation approach to facilitating adaptive co-management in mountain destinations managed for conservation and recreation

Mountain destinations are often managed not only to support tourism and recreation but also to maintain a range of sensitive ecological processes and services. Resource use and management activities in mountain destinations are manifestations of various representations of mountain landscapes that may contribute to tension and conflicts, or collaboration and learning between stakeholders of mountain destinations. Adaptive co-management (ACM) that adopts a social learning model to forge collaborative natural resource management provides one approach to managing complex and dynamic social-ecological systems in mountain destinations. Social representations (SR) theory, as a theory of social knowledge and social change, offers one theoretical lens with which to gain insights into the representations that different stakeholders ascribe to mountain landscapes and to assist in developing functioning ACM. The utility of SR theory for ACM arrangements is examined using a case study that explores the representations of the mountain landscape within Yushan National Park (YNP) in Taiwan from the perspectives of three resource user groups: committed mountaineers, professional guides, and mountain tourists. The study findings are used to demonstrate how the processes of representations and dialogical antinomies embedded in representations can impede or facilitate stakeholder interactions in ACM.     

A structural model of residents’ intention to participate in ecotourism: The case of a wetland community

Ecotourism supports environmental conservation as well as generating economic opportunities. It additionally strongly emphasizes benefits to the local community and suggests that the involvement of the residents is important for the effective management of tourism. Accordingly, this study explores factors contributing to residents’ participation intention in ecotourism management and proposes a structural relationship between their participation intention, environmental knowledge, attitudes towards ecotourism and the appeal of tourist landscapes. Analysis indicates residents’ environmental knowledge positively affects attitudes towards ecotourism, which in turn directly and indirectly determine the intention to participate in ecotourism through their individual landscape affinity. Thus, residents’ involvement in ecotourism may be stimulated through a) appropriate management strategies aimed at increasing their environmental knowledge, b) encouraging positive ecotourism attitudes, and c) environmental planning that promotes residents’ affinity for local attractions.