Capital Inflows Problem in Selected Asian Economies in the 1990s Revisited: The Role of Monetary Sterilization*

This paper develops a simple model to examine the reasons behind the capital inflow surges into selected Asian economies in the 1990s prior to the financial crisis of 1997–98. The analytical model shows that persistent uncovered interest differentials and consequent capital inflows may be a result of complete monetary sterilization, perfect capital mobility, sluggish response of interest rates to domestic monetary disequilibrium, or some combination of all three. Using the model as an organizing framework, the paper undertakes a series of related simple empirical tests of the dynamic links between international capital flows, the extent to which they are sterilized and uncovered interest rate differentials in the five crisis‐hit economies (Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand) over the period 1990:1–1997:5.     

Effectiveness of Capital Controls and Sterilizations in China

Since 2003, China has been facing a trilemma of determining how to maintain independent monetary policy and limit exchange rate flexibility simultaneously, while facing persistent and substantial international capital flows. The present paper is an empirical evaluation of the effectiveness of China＇s sterilizations and capital mobility regulations, measured by sterilization and offset coefficients, respectively, using monthly data between mid-1999 and March 2009. We find that the effectiveness of China＇s sterilizations is almost perfect in terms of the monetary base, but not in terms of M2, and that China＇s capital controls still work but are not quite effective. Recursive estimation reveals that increasing mobility of capital flows and decreasing effectiveness of sterilizations might undercut China＇s ability to maintain monetary autonomy and domestic currency stability simultaneously. To solve the trilemma smoothly, China＇s monetary authority should continue to relax the management of the exchange rate, and take further steps towards deregulation of capital outflows.     

劳动力跨境流动和东亚货币合作

劳动力要素在货币区内各国或地区之间的跨境流动性是货币合作机制得以长期巩固和发展的决定性基础。东亚各国和地区目前的劳动和社会保障制度特征对劳动力跨境自由流动构成阻碍,必须进行双边和多边的统一和协调,以促进东亚国家和地区之间的劳动力流动合作,推动货币合作进程。     

人民币国际化的现状、影响及未来货币政策取向

当前人民币国际化具有外汇储备的扩大、币值的稳定、金融市场的完善等许多有利的条件，同时也存在经济发展方式粗放、资本管制、美元惯性等诸多不利的条件。人民币国际化对货币政策可能会产生多方面的影响。由于货币政策具有溢出效应，同时考虑到利率市场化的影响，人民币国际化后货币政策的独立性将受到较大的冲击。人民币国际化对传导机制的影响表现在：由传统的信贷传导机制逐步转换为汇率传导机制，同时传导途径将进一步灵活化。由于存在货币替代，货币需求函数将变复杂且货币流量将更难以监控。在政策传导工具方面，准备金政策和再贴现政策效果将被削弱，而公开市场业务效果将增强。为了应对人民币国际化可能产生的影响，应当从加强对人民币的监督、完善利率与汇率机制、推进资本项目开放和合理搭配政策等方面采取对策来加以解决。     

Intraregional Cross-holding of Reserve Currencies： A Proposal for Asia to Deal with the Global Reserve Risks

Economists have put forward various proposals to deal with the growing risks of the global reserve currency system. In this paper we recommend that Asian economies hold each other＇s currencies as part of their foreign reserves. Different from crisis-fighting currency swap arrangements or crisis-rescuing fund mechanisms, this mechanism means that reserves wouM be held, with a regular arrangement in place and on an ongoing basis. We propose that the global reserve system shouM be pushed in the direction of diversification, which could be a transitional step toward a new single reserve system. This mechanism would not necessitate any currency being a globally accepted reserve currency but would mean that every currency carried some weight in the reserve system. Establishment of such a system would require significant development of regional bond markets and facilitation of macroeconomic surveillance among the economies.     

Autonomy and Effectiveness of Chinese Monetary Policy under the De Facto Fixed Exchange Rate System

This paper uses monthly data to examine the autonomy and effectiveness of monetary policy in China under the de facto fixed exchange rate arrangement in place from 1998 to 2005. The results obtained from Granger causality tests in a vector autoregression framework indicate that： （i） China actually conducted independent monetary policy during the fixed exchange rate period; and （ii） market-oriented policy measures are impotent in influencing real output and prices. The framework of the investigation into the autonomy of monetary policy adapts to the Chinese economic condition that primary loan and deposit rates are set by the central bank. Based on the empirical results, the present paper provides alternative strategies to improve the effectiveness of monetary policy in China, including developing the financial system and solidifying microeconomic fundamentals instead of forcing the adaptation of a more flexible exchange rate regime.     

开放经济货币政策动态下人民币汇率问题研究

文章以汇率超调模型及其拓展为基础,突出货币供求(Ms-Md)与宏观经济短期波动的总供求(AS-AD)关联运行的作用机理,结合非线性宏观金融理论在货币供需分析中引入可交易金融资产,在资本管制货币扩张下,对人民币名义汇率动态进行综合判断。在此基础上进行实证研究,突出指示器变量的作用,为人民币汇率动态提供经验支持。通过建立指示器指标之间的线性回归关系,在货币需求方程的协整分析基础上,反解出货币供求均衡条件下所形成与宏观经济总供求相合意的名义汇率,即把反映宏观经济总供求运行的均衡货币因素代入指示器指标之间OLS关系中,反解出均衡水平下的合意名义汇率,结果表明从自身而言,人民币不具备升值诉求。     

中国对亚洲贸易逆差的成因

亚洲国家和地区在中国进出口贸易中具有十分重要的地位。近年来,中国对亚洲的贸易出现了一些新的特点：贸易总量持续上升,也出现了较大的贸易逆差。造成贸易总量和逆差双增加的主要原因有：中国经济持续增长,资本进入增加,中国产业结构升级和部分国家与地区贸易保护主义的抬头。亚洲具有重要的战略地位,中国必须加强与亚洲的经贸关系,协调贸易关系,保持稳定的社会政治经济环境,拓展贸易领域,平衡区域贸易。     

量化宽松、资本流动与国际间货币政策协调

主要利用美国国际收支(简称BOP)账户、资金流量表等统计数据探讨量化宽松与资本流动之间相互联系。分析表明,国际资本流动与量化宽松之间关系密切,量化宽松是资本流向EMEs的重要原因,反过来资本流动则影响了量化宽松的有效性,量化宽松和资本流动是引发全球货币汇率冲突的关键性因素。各国应通过国际协调促进宏观经济政策的生效和压制冲突,使全球经济得以更加平衡地复苏以压制冲突,而且发达国家应承担更大的调整责任。     

从金融传导领域分析我国的货币政策传导机制

中央银行的货币政策引起实际经济变量的改变是通过货币政策传导机制实现的。而货币政策的传导机制包括金融传导领域和经济传导领域。其中金融传导是中央银行与金融中介相互影响和相互作用的过程。文章着重通过对金融传导领域中的执行主体、传导中介、市场基础和调节杠杆进行分析,来研究我国的货币政策传导机制。     

日本超金融缓和政策的长期实施及解除

零利率和缓和货币数量是日本治理通货紧缩的两项超金融缓和政策。通过这两项政策的长期实行和慎重解除,日本的金融市场保持稳定,个人消费有所改善,景气得以持续恢复,使结束通货紧缩进入临终阶段。日本实行和解除零利率、缓和货币数量政策的经验,值得借鉴。     

欧元区统一货币政策绩效及其对中国的启示

欧元产生以来,欧洲中央银行在统一货币政策的框架下较好的实现了物价稳定的首要任务,却未能有效促进欧元区的经济增长、充分就业和国际收支平衡,主要原因在于:成员国经济基本面的差异使统一货币政策产生了巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应。由此给当前正致力于货币合作的东亚地区带来了一个重要启示:应不断加强各国间的政策协调,确保主要经济指标高度趋同,为将来单一货币的实行奠定重要基础。     

影子银行对货币政策的影响——基于内生货币理论视角

影子银行的迅速发展使其成为我国金融体系的重要组成部分,由于其具有一些与传统银行类似的功能,继而对我国货币政策调控的有效性提出了挑战;后凯恩斯货币理论认为货币本质上属于一种债权-债务关系,是非中性的交易媒介,而央行是否能够有效的控制货币供应量呢?本文基于内生货币理论的视角,重新诠释影子银行对我国货币政策的影响,以期对货币政策的制定提供有益借鉴。     

Managing in the Middle: Characterizing Singapore's Exchange Rate Policy*

It is by now common knowledge that there can be a significant divergence in the de facto versus de jure exchange rate regimes operated by economies. Although much of the recent published literature in Asia has focused on the crisis-hit economies, Korea and Thailand in particular, scant attention has been paid to Singapore, which officially targets its nominal effective exchange rate (around a band). The present paper examines the degree of exchange rate intervention for Singapore using various methods of assessing de facto exchange rate regimes. In the main, we show that although the Singapore dollar is primarily influenced by the US dollar, in keeping with its de jure classification of a basket pegged regime, other major currencies, such as the yen and the euro, also impact the Singapore dollar. There is also evidence to indicate that Singapore uses the nominal effective exchange rate strategically as a policy instrument to satisfy domestic inflation objectives.     

关注调整中的国际货币体制权力结构

国际货币体系始终处于动荡之中,关键货币之间汇率冲突不断,导致这种状况的主要根源是美元危机。美元面临多方面挑战。美元体制基础弱化的征兆越来越明显。国际主导货币之间的竞争呈现新的特点。我国应注意发挥人民币潜在功能,完善外汇政策体系,维护金融稳定,在人民币国际化问题上宜立足于"不急不躁"战略。     

数量型还是价格型货币政策比较——基于利率市场化角度的分析

利率市场化进程中,数量型还是价格型货币政策合适?文章考虑金融市场上的金融加速器特征,将其引入DSGE模型,通过校准、模拟,从宏观经济波动幅度、不同货币政策下冲击效应以及福利损失函数三方面综合分析了利率市场化过程中数量型和价格型货币政策有效性问题。研究结果显示,随着存款利率的上升,在熨平经济波动方面,价格型货币政策更有优势;在促进经济增长方面,数量型货币政策更有优势;对央行损失而言,价格型货币政策的损失更小。因此,中央银行应根据需要灵活的运用数量型和货币型搭配使用,做好数量型向价格型转变。     

我国CPI重回2时代背景下的货币政策调整

2012年我国再度迎来CPI的2时代,证明在2012年我国的通货膨胀水平开始回落。然而由于短期的季节性原因和长期国际国内环境的制约,在未来的一段时期内仍然存在着高通货膨胀预期。我国应该抓住此次通货膨胀走低的机会,同时也要审慎考虑高通货膨胀率的预期,与时俱进,根据上一阶段的货币政策执行情况审时度势,调整我国货币政策的实施重点。以经济增长为首要目标,配合适度的通货膨胀容忍度,采取调控存款准备金率、改革利率制度、优化信贷支持结构等措施,促进宏观经济又好又快发展。     

中国货币政策数量效果的实证研究

文章主要运用了单位根检验、协整检验、格兰杰因果关系检验、脉冲响应函数和方差分解等计量经济学方法,利用1994年到2004年的季度数据,对货币供应量、利率这两个重要货币政策变量与GDP之间的关系进行了计量分析,利率对实体经济的影响不显著;不同层次的货币供应量都能对经济产生影响,但它们对GDP的作用效果是有差异的.为提高我国货币政策的效果,实现我国货币政策的目标提出了相关的政策建议.     

Substitutes or complements? The interactions between components of capital inflows for Asia

Despite an emerging and interesting literature on the pecking order of capital flows that might arise from asymmetric information and financing constraints, the dynamics of the interactions between the various components of capital flows, namely FDI, portfolio equity, portfolio debt and bank flows appear a little under-researched. This paper presents an empirical examination of this issue for a sample of East Asian countries – looking only at the inflows of capital – by asking the following questions: Are the respective components of capital flows substitutes or complements? Does one type of capital flow enhance or inhibit the others? Is this effect mitigated or exacerbated during crises? What effect does the volatility of each of the components of flows have on the level of each flow? The policy implications of this analysis can be viewed in terms of countries financial liberalisation policies. If two types of flows are substitutes, then a policy of liberalising, or indeed restricting, one type of flow may actually crowd out the other. This may well be an unintended consequence of a country's financial liberalisation policy.     

Workers' Remittances,Capital Inflows,and Economic Growth in Developing Asia and the Pacific

This paper examines the impact of remittances on economic growth, using developing countries in Asia and the Pacific as a case study. Using data for the period 1993–2013, our results show that remittances only generate negative and significant impacts on economic growth if they reach 10 percent of GDP or higher. A remittances‐to‐GDP ratio of below 10 percent could still impact growth negatively, but the effect is statistically insignificant. The present study finds some degree of substitutability between remittances and financial development. Foreign direct investment (FDI), but not other types of capital inflow, contributes significantly to economic growth. Other traditional growth engines, including education, trade openness, and domestic investment, are crucial in promoting growth in developing Asian and Pacific nations.