ALTERNATIVE DEFINITIONS OF DEMAND FOR RECREATIONAL ANGLING IN NORTHERN IRELAND

The effects of three alternative definitions of demand on estimated parameters are explored in a travel-cost study of aggregate demand for recreational angling in Northern Ireland in 1988. Functions are estimated using individual visits and zonal visitation rates for the number of visits and the number of visitors as alternative demand definitions. The approach using individual visits was found to be the more satisfactory in statistical terms and in relation to estimates of user benefits when compared with a parallel contingency valuation study. It is judged to be the more appropriate approach where there is a well defined and quantifiable user group. However, the modelling of income and substitutes in the functions proved to be unsatisfactory, perhaps due to inadequate specification and measurement of these variables.     

Parametric and Non‐Parametric Estimates of Willingness to Pay for Forest Recreation in Northern Ireland: A Discrete Choice Contingent Valuation Study with Follow‐Ups

In this study we show that forest areas contribute significantly to the estimated benefits from outdoor recreation in Northern Ireland. Secondly we provide empirical evidence of the gains in the statistical efficiency of both benefit and parameter estimates obtained by analysing follow‐up responses with Double Bounded interval data analysis. As these gains are considerable, it is clearly worth considering this method in CVM survey design even when moderately large sample sizes are used. Finally we demonstrate that estimates of means and medians of WTP distributions for access to forest recreation show plausible magnitude, are consistent with previous UK studies, and converge across parametric and non‐parametric methods of estimation.     

A Note on Estimating Nested Constant Elasticity of Substitution Preferences for Outdoor Recreation

A generalized version of a well-known statistical result is used to suggest an alternative strategy for estimating nested constant elasticity of substitution preferences for recreation demand. Parameter and welfare estimates from nested constant elasticity of substitution count data demand system models are presented and compared to estimates from the multinomial approaches developed previously. A significant advantage of the count data estimation strategy over the multinomial-based approaches is that the analyst avoids the difficulties associated with choice occasion specification and interpretation.     

A Sequential Choice Alternative to the Travel Cost Model

The travel cost model is the standard model used in the recreation demand area. This model assumes that the decision on the number of trips in a given time period (a season, for example) to a particular site is determined at the beginning of the time period. For certain types of recreation activity, it may be better to model the decision to take a trip to a given site as a function of the outcome of previous trips and the realization of random variables on previous trips (as well as travel and time costs). The spatial choice behavior itself may be sequential in nature rather than continuous. In this paper, a model is developed which specifies the choice of a discrete number of sequentially chosen trips to a given site as a function of site-specific variables and values realized on previous trips. This model improves upon the existing travel cost model by specifying discrete integer values for the number of trips, developing an explicit relationship between trips taken and the number of days spent on each trip, and allowing intra-seasonal effects to determine the probability of taking an additional trip. A comparison is made between the traditional travel cost model estimates of consumer's surplus and the estimates from this sequential discrete choice model.     

VALUING RURAL RECREATION BENEFITS: AN EMPIRICAL COMPARISON OF TWO APPROACHES

Two methodologies for valuing non-market benefits (contingent valuation and the travel cost method) are briefly described. Both are then applied to the problem of valuing non-market recreation benefits derived by visitors to a part of the Queen Elizabeth Forest Park in Central Scotland. Results, in terms of consumer surplus estimates, are presented for each method, and problem areas found in applying the two methodologies are pointed out.     

Estimating Recreational User Counts

This article outlines a methodology for estimating the number of individual visitors to a set of recreational sites, as well as counts of specific visitor groups. The model is designed for sets of sites characterized by: ( a ) unrestricted recreation from a wide and partially unknown geographic market; ( b ) individuals who may visit more than one site; ( c ) accurate visitation (gate) counts from each site. The model provides consistent estimates of the total number of individual visitors, based on information embedded in site-level count and survey data. Monte Carlo analysis and an empirical application illustrate the properties of visitor count estimates.     

CPA policies for countryside recreation in Wales

Public demand for countryside recreation in Wales has put increasing pressure on the country's eight county council planning authorities (CPAs). This article reviews the provision and planning structures in each country, to give an overall picture of countryside recreation in Wales at present. A number of underlying issues which affect the work of the county planning authorities are identified and their implications for the future of countryside recreation in Wales assessed. To demonstrate the significance of these underlying issues, the present situation is set against its historical background.     

Estimating values for recreational fishing at freshwater dams in Queensland*

In this paper, estimates of value for recreational fishing are reported for three major freshwater impoundments in Queensland, Australia, using both travel cost and contingent valuation methods. Policy analysts often require estimates of value when analysing the importance of recreation against other uses of impoundments, or when considering the potential for further investments, such as with fish stocking programs. Different forms of the travel cost method are used to estimate separate consumer surpluses associated with two key subgroups of recreational anglers: frequent and occasional anglers. A contingent valuation study is used to estimate the marginal values associated with a potential improvement in fishing experience. The results of the travel cost analysis provide strong evidence that recreational values vary between different groups of anglers and across sites, while the contingent valuation estimates provide values for additional marginal benefits of recreational angling.     

The role of wildlife-associated recreation in private land use and conservation: Providing the missing baseline

Successfully integrating human activities with ecosystem conservation forms the foundation of sustainability and is key to maintaining biological diversity. This is especially important in privately-owned lands in the U.S., which harbor high levels of biodiversity yet are often vulnerable to habitat degradation and loss. This study analyzes recreation as a sustainable use on private property, focusing on wildlife-associated recreation, defined here as fishing, hunting and wildlife watching. Eighteen national surveys implemented by three U.S. government agencies spanning 1999–2013 were analyzed to provide baseline information and an assessment of the conservation impact of recreation. Results show that approximately 440.1 million acres of private land, ∼22% of the contiguous land area of the U.S., are either leased or owned for wildlife-associated recreation. Land utilized for hunting accounts for 81% of that total. Approximately 33% of private forestland, 18% of private grazing land and 4% of private cropland is used to earn revenue from recreational activities. Annual spending for wildlife-associated recreation on private land is estimated at $814 million in day-use fees, $1.48 billion for long-term leases, and $14.8 billion to own land primarily for recreation (2011 dollars). Hunters own or lease properties of larger size classes than anglers or wildlife-watchers, indicating that hunting may provide a greater economic incentive for maintaining large unfragmented properties that provide a variety of conservation benefits. On grazing and cropland, landowners who earn income from recreation are significantly more likely to participate in government conservation programs (p < 0.001) and to pay for private conservation practices (p = 0.08). This provides support that recreation incentivizes conservation at higher rates than agricultural activities alone. Three policy measures that could further enhance conservation benefits of recreation are discussed.     

Spatial allocation of forest recreation value

Non-market valuation methods and geographic information systems are useful planning and management tools for public land managers. Recent attention has been given to investigation and demonstration of methods for combining these tools to provide spatially-explicit representations of non-market value. Most of these efforts have focused on spatial allocation of ecosystem service values based on land cover types, but recreation value has yet to be considered. This article presents an objective method for spatially allocating forest recreation value that is based on readily available data, demonstrates the method for a Southern California study site, and discusses the policy relevance of the method and how it might be extended to other applications and tested with additional primary survey data.     

Future play: tourism,recreation and land use

Recent changes in land use for tourism and recreation have been driven by socio-demographic shifts, increases in disposable time and incomes, technological changes, transport developments, and emerging systems of policy and governance. Combined with changes in consumption preferences, these have led to general but differentiated increases in tourism and recreation. Outbound tourism has grown more rapidly than inbound, which has led to some displacement of land use demands. In the case of recreation, there are shifts between at home and outdoor recreation, and changes in the content and location of each. The resulting land use trends can be understood in regional, intra-regional (urban versus rural versus coastal) and temporal terms. Future trends are considered in terms of how this broad set of drivers and the relationships between them are being and are likely to be transformed.     

试论林业与发展我国休闲产业

休闲产业是一国经济发展水平的重要标志，林业在休闲产业发展中承担重要的载体和生态建设功能。充分发挥林业在休闲产业建设中的作用，对实现林业现代化具有重要意义。探讨休闲产业对我国经济发展的意义，林业在其中的作用，以及如何发挥休闲产业建设过程中林业的重要作用。     

The Travel Cost Method: an Empirical Investigation of Randall's Difficulty

Randall (1994) argued that the Travel Cost Method (TCM) cannot generate monetary measures of recreation site benefits for use in Cost Benefit Analysis. Randall argues that what is relevant to recreational decision-making is the subjective, and unobservable, price of travel, whereas TCM uses the observer-assessed cost of travel. Hence, TCM can at best give ordinally measurable welfare estimates. 'Randall's Difficulty' is formulated as an estimation problem and results are derived for that problem. The meaning of, prospects for, and usefulness of ordinal measurement are explored, and the existence of a solution to Randall's Difficulty is considered.     

森林旅游资源的保护

森林旅游前景看好,本文分析了森林旅游资源开发利用中的负面影响,为使其负面影响减少到最低限度,实现森林旅游资源可持续利用,指出应加强对森林旅游资源的保护,并对森林旅游资源的保护提出一些对策建议。     

Participation, Trip Frequency and Site Choice: A Multinomial-Poisson Hurdle Model of Recreation Demand

Data used in recreation demand modeling are characterized by the facts that trip frequencies are non-negative integers and that consumers are often faced with alternative destinations. This paper considers these features by estimating a multivariate recreation demand model that accounts for trip frequency and choice among alternative recreation sites using a mixed multinomial-Poisson hurdle distribution. The specification of the Poisson hurdle distribution at the aggregate level accounts for participation and trip frequency, and avoids the restrictive mean-variance property of the basic Poisson model. The model is estimated using data from Bighorn sheep hunters in Alberta, Canada. Simulation results suggest that changing price and quality variables cause substitution among sites. The welfare implications of changes in these variables are also examined.     

Testing for convergent validity between travel cost and contingent valuation estimates of recreation values in the Coorong,Australia*

A number of studies valuing recreation have shown that the travel cost method (TCM) generates higher estimates of value than the contingent valuation method (CVM), even though the latter is commonly associated with potential problems of hypothetical and strategic bias. In this study, both methods have been used to estimate the recreational values associated with the Coorong on the Murray River in south‐eastern Australia. Values per adult visitor per recreation day are estimated with the TCM at $149 and with the CVM at $116. A number of methodological and framing issues to explain these value differences are tested. In summary, while no single methodological or framing issue could be identified that would reconcile the difference between TCM and CVM values, it appears likely that there may be a combination of factors that drive the systematic variations in consumer surplus values. The evidence in this study suggests that the most important of these are likely to be the different decision points underpinning data collection and the consideration of substitute sites, strategic responses and the treatment of uncertain responses within the CVM.     

Convergent validity between revealed and stated recreation demand data: Some empirical evidence from the Basque Country,Spain

In a travel cost exercise, reported past visits to mount Jaizkibel, a natural area located in the Basque Country (Spain), are compared for convergent validity to stated intended future trips under the assumption that the natural resource's conditions will remain the same. In line with the results obtained by other studies, the empirical evidence of this application suggests that revealed preferences (RP) and stated preferences (SP) do not produce consistent data, i.e. do not achieve convergent validity. The paper deals with the convergent validity literature in continuous-choice studies by using two-staged count data models for recreation demand. Differences in preference structures and welfare estimates are tested assuming both common and different data generating processes for the RP and SP data.     

On the value of drovers’ routes as environmental assets: A contingent valuation approach

The aim of this study was to evaluate the non-market benefits resulting from the restoration of an old drovers’ route for recreation uses in Valencia (Spain). The valuation was carried out using the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) through the elicitation of individuals’ willingness to pay (WTP). Since 52% of the respondents stated a zero WTP response, in order to inform decision-making processes more accurately, special attention was paid to the problem of zero and protest responses, and also to the possible presence of self-selection by those that protested. For the different specifications considered, results suggest that mean WTP estimates are higher for “rural areas” than for “the Valencia area”.     

Amenity values and payment schemes for free recreation services from non-industrial private forest properties: A French case study

Free-access recreation on private forest property is gaining in importance with the increasing social demand for forest-based recreation. The amended French Forest Law of 2001 provides for schemes with a voluntary contract, in terms of which private forest owners are paid to maintain an open-access forest for nature-based recreational activities, which are largely public goods. The main objective of this paper is to analyze private forest landowners’ commitment to free-access recreation services on their properties. We develop a framework to estimate their willingness-to-accept (WTA) values as a measure of the financial compensation that they expect in exchange of reduced forest amenity values due to a public recreation use management plan. Since forest holdings are permanently exposed to several types of risk, the willingness-to-accept measure is defined within a subjective expected utility modeling approach. Our empirical analysis draws on data from a contingent valuation design carried out in 2006 in the Landes district in France. The empirical distribution of the subjective probability of fire risk is deduced from the forest owners’ perception of fire risks due to free recreation use. We then introduce our measurements of the fire risk as explanatory variables of the forest owners’ financial compensation requirements.     

基于CVM方法的福州国家森林公园游憩价值评价

基于CVM方法对福州国家森林公园的游憩价值进行评价,调查结果得出:2015年福州国家森林公园的游憩价值为2.164亿元。游客对公园的满意度和旅游次数与游客的支付意愿呈显著正相关(p0.05),游客的家庭人口数(p0.01)、月收入(p0.01)和职称(p0.05)与游客的WTP值呈显著正相关。基于研究,景区应在生态环境、服务设施和质量上进一步挖掘公园潜在的游憩价值,并在游客森林游憩过程中,普及生态环境知识和宣传教育,提高游客的生态保护意识。