AGRICULTURAL TRADE LIBERALISATION AND THE URUGUAY ROUND*

With the Punta del Este Declaration, agriculture was accorded prominence in the GATT negotiations and, for the first time, national support policies were on the agenda. In this paper, the progress of the negotiations on agriculture is reviewed in an attempt to understand the factors which shaped the final outcome and to assess the likely impact of the round on liberalising agricultural trade. Although the immediate impact is likely to be modest, the round will provide longer term benefits to agricultural trade through the extension of the GATT rules-based system to agriculture. The framework which has been laid should provide a sound basis for future negotiations. Within the multilateral framework, the pace of change is a function of the willingness of all parties to compromise and this is evident in the Uruguay Round's outcome which reflects the European Union's agricultural reform agenda.     

LIBERALISING OECD AGRICULTURAL POLICIES IN THE URUGUAY ROUND: EFFECTS ON TRADE AND WELFARE

A dynamic, stochastic, multi-commodity model of world food markets is used to estimate the effects of liberalising agricultural policies in industrial countries. The effects on international and domestic prices, on trade volumes and on economic welfare of a phased liberalisation of industrial-country policies between 1988 and 1992 are compared with the effects of a similar hypothetical liberalisation in the early 1980s. The results suggest that, because of the dramatic increase in agricultural protection during the 1980s, the effects of a liberalisation under the Uruguay Round would be, in real terms, more than double those that would have resulted from a similar liberalisation a decade earlier. Major gainers are consumers in Western Europe and Japan and farmers in developing countries. But the cost to tax-payers in Western Europe is also escalating, not to mention the burden on non-agricultural producers in those countries whose competitiveness is reduced by farm policies. These domestic pressures from treasuries and from producers of non-farm products, together with greater international pressure for reform from agricultural-exporting countries, have raised the probability of at least some liberalisation during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations.     

AGRICULTURE IN THE URUGUAY ROUND: AMBITIONS AND REALITIES

Agricultural trade policies are basically a function of domestic policy considerations which have produced high levels of support in many countries. New policy instruments such as direct payments, which are more demanding in terms of information costs but which distort resource allocation less, are becoming more attractive. Unilateral liberalisation is, however, unlikely. Freer trade is a public good which requires international collective action to be provided. Countries which have a clear-cut trade interest in liberalising markets for commodities they export can play the role of catalyst in international co-ordination. The existence of big players is a favourable factor. Hence, the drift of the Round towards a co-ordination of US-EC interests. Both political economy and trade interest considerations suggest that an agreement reached will have its main impact on crops which are widely traded. The main constraining factor of an agreement on EC and US agriculture will be the discipline it will impose on the use of export subsidies. Agriculture will still not come fully under GATT rules which apply to other sectors, but in the future the CAP will be more constrained by international commitments than in the past.     

RISK PERCEPTION AND THE ANALYSIS OF RISK ATTITUDES*

Risk has long been recognised as an important feature of the environment facing farmers. In recent years the von Neumann-Morgenstern expected utility theory has been used to analyse decision making under risk. However, many people behave in a manner inconsistent with the expected utility theory. One widely suggested explanation is based on subjective probability distortion. A number of attempts to incorporate this phenomenon into utility theories have been made. In this paper, the problems of analysing subjective probability distortion are discussed. Evidence from a survey of farmers' risk attitudes undertaken in conjunction with the 1977 BAE Australian Agricultural and Grazing Industries Survey is analysed in the light of this discussion.     

新一轮国际粮食价格上涨：原因及对中国市场的影响

[目的]随着中国粮食进口不断增加,国内外市场联系越来越紧密。2020年下半年以来,国际市场粮食价格快速上涨,对国内粮食市场产生一定影响,分析国际市场价格上涨的原因和影响对确保国内粮食供应稳定、保障国家粮食安全具有重要意义。[方法]文章分析了2019年以来小麦、大米、玉米、大豆4种粮食产品的国内外价格走势,从供需状况、贸易政策、气候变化等因素分析国际市场价格波动的原因,并探讨了国际价格对国内价格的影响。[结果]当前全球主要粮食品种供应充足,库存仍处于较高水平,此轮国际粮食价格上涨主要是受到美国等发达国家宽松的货币政策以及疫情后全球消费逐步回暖的影响;但国际市场价格上涨对中国市场的影响总体有限,国内小麦、大米、玉米价格上涨的主因是国内消费回暖和生猪产能恢复带动的饲用需求快速增长,油用大豆受国际市场的影响较大。[结论]为稳定国内粮食市场,避免国际市场的冲击,中国要进一步提升粮食综合生产能力,强化科技支撑,加强粮食储备管理,健全政策支持体系,并引导居民建立科学的消费观念。     

中国玉米供需平衡及国际市场可利用性分析

[目的]当前中国玉米供需形势偏紧,产需缺口有扩大趋势,综合考虑到水土资源短缺的要素制约以及玉米进口来源国集中的贸易风险,加强对国际玉米市场资源可利用性研究,分析世界玉米主产国玉米生产和出口潜力,保障国内玉米供应安全十分必要。[方法]文章运用比较分析法,对国内外玉米供需、贸易的历史和最新数据进行比较详实的统计分析;采用FAO—GAEZ模型测算世界玉米主产国的玉米生产潜力。[结果]当前中国玉米产不足需,长期看供需格局偏紧将持续,玉米净进口将维持常态化;世界玉米供需格局较为宽松,美国的玉米产量和出口量占世界玉米产量和出口量的份额在逐渐下降,而巴西、阿根廷、乌克兰的份额在逐步上升,贸易格局呈多元化发展;从4个玉米主产国较好的生产与出口潜力看,未来中国利用国际玉米市场资源的空间环境较为有利。[结论]提高统筹利用国际国内"两个市场、两种资源"的能力,保障中国玉米供需平衡,要实施玉米进口多元化战略,分散玉米进口风险,引导农业企业"走出去",加快建立持续、稳定、安全的全球粮食供应体系,同时要立足国内生产保供给,优化玉米产业区域布局,促进国内玉米产业的健康和高质量发展。     

我国粮食市场风险的度量与评估  ———基于风险价值法的实证分析

该文利用风险价值法,以我国小麦、玉米、粳稻、早籼稻、晚籼稻、大豆的市场价格为研究对象,度量了我国粮食市场的风险大小,评估了我国粮食市场风险的发生程度。结果表明:我国粮食市场是一个风险发生频率较高的市场,并且还是一个高风险市场;不同品种粮食市场风险的发生大小有所不同,其中大豆的市场风险值最大,其次为玉米、粳稻、早籼稻、晚籼稻,小麦的市场风险值最小;粮食市场价格下跌风险与市场价格上涨风险的发生频率基本相当,两者同等重要,在重点关注粮食价格上涨风险的同时,更应重视粮食价格下跌所产生的风险。     

中国粮食生产布局与结构区域演变分析

该文分析了我国粮食生产区域布局优化趋势与粮食生产区域结构演变的特点,提出了农作物结构调整需要保证稳定粮食发展、粮食结构调整需要兼顾品种和区域平衡、粮食生产布局需要物流加工产业配套及粮食产业布局要注意水土资源的节约等粮食布局与结构优化相应的对策建议。     

中国食物供求分析及预测：基于贸易历史、国际比较和模型模拟分析的视角

研究分别从贸易历史、国际比较和模型模拟的视角对中国未来食物供求平衡状况进行了展望和模拟分析。(1)贸易历史的角度的经验结果显示,中国食物贸易净进口呈扩大态势;(2)中国大陆与日本、韩国及中国台湾地区的国际比较结果表明,中国未来粮食净进口可能会进一步扩大,尤其是对蛋白质来源食物需求可能会快速扩张;(3)基于中国食物供求局部均衡模型的模拟分析结果显示,中国谷物和油料作物供求平衡的缺口将不断扩大,主要谷物和油料作物的自给率将不断下降,同时,中国采取的玉米产业需求抑制政策对中国粮食供求平衡具有深远影响。综合以上不同视角的结果可以看出,要根本解决中国食物供求平衡问题,有必要建立食物安全与其他安全的综合安全观,实现4个方面的战略转变。即:第一,从重视确保数量向重视确保国内外资源战略转变,如签订粮食供给的政府间协议。第二,从重视总体粮食安全向重视主食安全、区域安全、运输安全(或航道安全)、流通和分配渠道安全、不同收入群体家庭食物安全转变。第三,从重视单一的食物安全向产业安全和质量安全转变。第四,从重视本国食物安全向全球视角转变。     

产品和地理多样化对农产品贸易的影响分析

[目的]农业在中国经济发展中一直处于基础产业地位,其既是人类赖以生存的物质基础,同时也是重要的工业原料。另外,在世界农产品贸易中,中国也扮演着十分重要的角色。因此,农产品的进出口对中国的农业生产有着深远影响,农产品进出口的稳定性直接决定了中国农业生产的稳定性。为此,将从产品和地理多样化视角,探究中国农产品进出口的稳定性。[方法]利用标准化赫芬达尔指数对中国农产品出口(进口)的地理多样化和产品多样化进行了测度,并在此基础上,进一步利用回归方法对出口(进口)地理多样化和产品多样化对农产品出口(进口)波动性的影响进行了检验。[结果]无论是出口还是进口,地理多样化和产品多样化都存在不同程度的行业异质性;无论是出口还是进口,地理多样化和产品多样化对农产品贸易波动性的影响存在着不同程度的行业异质性。[结论]在产品结构和地理结构方面,根据不同商品类别采取多样化或专一化政策以减少中国农产品进出口的波动性。     

对我国农产品市场超常波动的思考

对我国农产品市场超常波动进行了较全面的分析;提出了必须在家庭经营的基础上,把农民组织起来,共同面向市场和重新启动城乡两个农产品消费市场的建议.     

THE IMPACT OF CHANGES IN TRADE POLICY ON DEVELOPING COUNTRY AGRICULTURE*

The Uruguay Round of trade negotiations has attracted much attention in the developing countries. It promises to weaken moves towards bilateral trade agreements, break open trade in temperate agricultural products, and should remove the last vestiges of protection against tropical products – although tariff escalation will remain. Overall, the main gains for the developing world will probably accrue to exporters of temperate products, above all those in Latin America; whilst for some of the poorer countries, losses may occur as the benefits of special and favoured access to the industrialised countries' markets will be eroded.     

新疆自治区农地流转规模效益与风险分析

中国的农业现代化必须建立在农业适度规模经营的基础上,农业生产走规模经营的路子也是现代化的需要。因此,农村土地承包经营权流转作为扩大农业经营规模、提高农业生产效益的手段不断被加以推广。新疆地区地域广阔,南北疆自然及社会经济条件差异大,因此不同区域农地流转条件和效果不同。本文在实地调研的基础上,将新疆的农地流转情况分为四大类型,统计分析农地规模,以探讨农地流转后是否能产生规模效益和农地流转的风险为主,运用DEA模型和案例比较的方法,对新疆地区农地流转的规模效益与风险进行分析。研究发现：以玛纳斯县为代表的北疆棉区棉农在农地转入后,农地总面积增加、户均每块地面积也增大,这表明农地流转使得植棉规模扩大并且产生规模效益,南疆则存在一定流转风险,主要分3类：生计风险、经营风险和交易风险。因此应分区分类指导流转。     

粮食主产区土地生态与粮食安全耦合协调性分析

目的 分析粮食主产区土地生态安全和粮食安全耦合协调状况及时空演变,为提升粮食主产区土地生态与粮食安全协调发展水平及农业绿色发展提供决策参考。方法 文章以粮食主产区为研究对象,基于土地生态与粮食安全相关数据,构建土地生态安全与粮食安全的评价体系,采用熵权法、耦合协调模型和相对发展度模型定量分析了二者的综合评价值、耦合协调水平及耦合协调发展类型。结果 （1）2009—2018年粮食主产区土地生态安全与粮食安全耦合协调度从0.369增至0.433,呈“缓慢上升”态势,协调类型由轻度失调跃升至濒临失调,空间布局呈现“北高南低”的分布特征。（2）各省区耦合协调发展类型分为3类：低度磨合土地生态滞后、高度磨合同步发展及低度磨和粮食安全滞后。结论 针对土地生态与粮食安全的耦合协调发展类型采取差异化措施,实现粮食安全与土地生态安全协同发展。     

粮食安全视角下的农业资源与环境要素的效用分析

[目的]通过分析农业资源与环境要素的效用,探讨保障我国粮食安全举措。[方法]在我国粮食安全现状的基础上,采用分析法分别对农业资源与环境要素的利用展开研究,提出针对性建议。[结果](1)农业资源要素:耕地资源利用率较低、农业资源浪费严重、农村劳动力大量转移;(2)农业环境要素:自然环境要素利用效率不高、农业投资不合理。[结论]由农业资源与环境要素两大因素导致的粮食安全问题日益突出。基于此应发展"紧凑型"城市化模式、坚持内涵式耕地开发,在减少农业资源浪费的同时提高现有耕地的整体质量;应通过改善基础设施、优化市场准入制度、提升流通效率,以提高粮食市场竞争力;应综合考虑农业资源与环境要素两大因素,从制度层面建立健全粮食安全保障体系。     

内蒙古干草原火动态及火险气候区划研究

利用内蒙古锡林郭勒盟干草原地区1953～1997年（其中1967～1970年、1983～1985年无记录）共计37年的火情及气候资料,全面系统地分析了草原火灾的时空分布规律,以影响草原火险的主要气候因子为指标,并考虑火发生的综合条件,确定了草原火险气候区划的指标系统,采用聚类分析方法,对该地区进行了火险气候区划,并提出了相应的火管理对策。     

OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE INFLUENCES ON THE DECISION TO TRADE ON THE LONDON POTATO FUTURES MARKET

Among dealers in the physical commodity, the benefits associated with risk reduction are important factors in motivating the decision to engage in futures trading. Although it is possible to evaluate, in an objective sense, the ability of a market to reduce risk, actual and potential users may also be heavily influenced by their subjective assessments of the performance and reliability of a futures market. This paper argues that the recent decline in the level of usage of the London Potato Futures Market may be more the product of unfavourable attitudes to trading than of a decline in the performance of the market with respect to risk reduction.