Package and no-frills air carriers as moderators of length of stay

This article analyses the determinants of length of stay among inbound tourists arriving by air in one of the world's most popular tourist countries, Spain. Special emphasis is placed on the effects of whether tourists booked the trip themselves or as part of a package and whether they travelled by low cost (LCA) or legacy airline. An ordered logit model is estimated. Relevant explanatory variables are related to tourist preferences and characteristics, trip characteristics, stay characteristics, and activities at destination. One of the main relevant results concerns the moderating effects. For instance, length of stay among package travellers is most affected by type of destination (city vs. coast), length of LCA trip by age, and length of legacy airline trip by accommodation type.     

Nature-based Tourists: The Relationship Between their Trip Expenditures and Activities

This paper investigates the relationship between four groups of trip activities and the daily expenditures of a sample of visitors at two nature-based attractions in Northern Norway. The paper also examines some other potential factors by adopting a widely utilised twofold segmentation approach: light versus heavy spenders. The results of the logistic regression analysis indicate that there is a significant relationship between the importance attached to travel activities by nature-based tourists and their daily expenditure on a current trip. More specifically, the more individuals consider visiting historic/cultural sites as an important activity on their journey, the more likely they are to be light spenders, whereas the more they consider ‘challenging nature-based activities’ as important, the more likely that they will be classified as heavy spenders. The investigation additionally finds that travel motives, though to a lesser degree, when taken in tandem with variables such as trip length, trip purpose, age and household income, influence nature tourists’ daily expenditure.     

Devaluation and US tourism expenditure in Mexico

Studies that investigate the factors affecting US tourism expenditures in Mexico generally regard relative prices in these countries as sensitive determinants. The findings of inelasticity of expenditures of American tourists with respect to prices in the Mexican interior and border in several studies published in the 1980s are debatable. This study evaluates the impact of recent peso devaluations by adjusting 1970–1982 US tourism expenditures by an index that combines the Consumer Price Index in dollars, the CPI in pesos, and the exchange rate. The results here clearly indicate that US expenditures in the interior and on the border are price sensitive and have a strong positive trend reaction to devaluation in both nominal and real terms. Border expenditures clearly exceed interior expenditures and are more sensitive to exchange rate changes than expenditures in interior Mexico.     

Is the spending behaviour of tourists affected by low-cost carriers' operation? Some empirical evidence

The objectives of this research include studying the impact of low-cost carriers on the spending behaviour of the tourists at a given destination. To accomplish these objectives we examined the allocation of tourist expenditures to different travel-associated expenses and its determinants in the Azores islands and compared the situation before and after the airline liberalization. We considered that socio-demographic and trip-related characteristics influence spending behaviour.We used Interval Regression Models to estimate the relationships between tourists' expenditures and their determinants. The results confirm a structural break in the value of the coefficients when considering the periods before and after the airline liberalization.     

Prediction of leisure participation from behavioral,normative, and control beliefs: An application of the theory of planned behavior

Abstract

The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1985, 1987) is offered as a comprehensive framework for understanding of leisure participation. Salient behavioral, normative, and control beliefs, theoretically the basic determinants of behavior, were assessed with respect to five leisure activities: spending time at the beach, jogging or running, mountain climbing, boating, and biking. College students completed a questionnaire containing measures of these beliefs and of global expressions of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. One year later the participants reported how often they had performed each behavior in the preceding 12 months. Behavioral beliefs were found to partition into beliefs about affective reactions and beliefs about costs and benefits. Participation in leisure activities was influenced by these affective and instrumental beliefs, as well as by normative beliefs about the expectations of important others and by control beliefs about required resources and other factors that impede or facilitate leisure participation.     

The repeat travel market for Taiwan: A multi-stage segmentation approach

Despite the importance of market segmentation, the growth of the travel and tourism industry in Taiwan, and the repeat travel phenomenon in tourism, relatively few studies have examined the behavior of repeat travelers in the East Asia region. The present study was designed to fill this gap. This exploratory study applied multistage segmentation in the context of repeat travel behavior to Taiwan. It examined the socio-demographic profile, trip characteristics and expenditures of Taiwan inbound repeat travelers. The results indicated that nationality, income, type of travel arrangements and information search behavior significantly affected repeat travel behavior. In terms of travel expenditures, males spent significantly more than females. Those travelers between 40 and 60 years old tended to spend the most when they visited Taiwan compared to other groups. Chinese travelers were most likely to have traveled to Taiwan more than once among all nationalities compared in this study. Those from Korea and Japan spent the most money among all nationality groups. This study provided several significant implications for the marketers of tourism in Taiwan.     

Major Determinants of International Tourism Demand for South Korea:

This study identifies the major determinants of international inbound tourist expenditures in South Korea using regression models. Income, relative prices, exchange rates, promotional expenditures, and dummy variables are incorporated into the models. The empirical results show that the coefficient of income was statistically significant and was highly elastic. The coefficients of relative prices and exchange rates were generally significant and elastic. The coefficient of promotional expenditures was found to be significant, but appeared to be inelastic. The findings of this study provide useful marketing information on how to promote international tourism demand for Korea.     

Explaining travel distance during same-day visits

Distance travelled is a recurrent determinant of expenditures during same-day visits and destination choice. Identifying the factors determining distance travelled will thus lead to a better understanding of expenditures and location choice, which is of interest from a policy and economic perspective. By applying a specific analytical framework which explicitly considers the different workings of socio-demographic factors on the decision to go on a same-day visit as well as the distance related effects of a same-day visit, we are able to investigate the effects of both socio demographic and same-day visit related variables on distance travelled. The empirical results highlight that gender, time spent, age, education and information source are important determinants of travel distance during same-day visits.     

Domestic tourism expenditures: The non-linear effects of length of stay and travel party size

The independent variables length of stay and travel party size are recurrent determinants of expenditures in micro level tourism studies. In most of this research it has been tacitly assumed that these variables have linear effects on tourism spending. This study, situated in a Norwegian setting, questions this approach by explicitly scrutinizing the possible non-linearities in the relationships between tourism expenditures on the one hand and length of stay and travel party size on the other. The empirical results suggest a positive but diminishing relationship between length of stay and tourism expenditures and a convex (i.e. U) relationship between travel party size and tourism expenditures. The study also considers how a number of other key independent variables affect tourism expenditures. Finally, some managerial and scholarly implications are discussed.     

Determinants of corporate cash-holding levels: An empirical examination of the restaurant industry

This study examines the determinants of cash-holding levels for restaurant firms. After examining a panel data set obtained from 125 publicly traded US restaurant firms between 1997 and 2008, the study provides evidence that restaurant firms with greater investment opportunities tend to hold more cash. At the same time, large restaurant firms, firms holding liquid assets other than cash, firms with higher capital expenditures, and firms paying dividends were shown to hold less cash. The results are generally supportive of the trade-off theory of cash holdings. In particular, both precautionary and transaction motives play important roles in explaining the determinants of cash holdings for restaurant firms.     

Students' summer tourism: Determinants of length of stay (LOS)

Studies scrutinizing the economic aspects of student tourism at the micro-level are rare in the literature. Set against this background, the present study examines the variation in a sample of Norwegian students' length of stay at summer vacation destinations in 2014. Three estimation methods – an OLS regression model, a Weibull survival model and a zero-truncated negative binomial regression model – provide qualitatively similar results regarding how a number of determinants affect length of stay. In particular, the results show that daily trip costs, booking time, tourism and trip motives, trip month and gender explain much of the variation in length of stay. Of special interest is the comparison of two segments differing on when trip duration is determined: the “pre-fixed” returners (75% of the sample) and the “open” returners (25%). In this regard, the results suggest that the “open” returners stay longer on their trips than the “pre-fixed” ones. Finally, the study provides some implications for future length of stay research.     

The impact of age and family life experiences on Mexican visitor shopping expenditures

Mexican Nationals frequently visit border towns and other cities in the United States that are in close proximity to their areas of residence for the main purpose of shopping at popular malls and outlet centers. However, it is somewhat difficult to gather the necessary information in order to profile the visitors and develop marketing strategies for targeting the appropriate market segments. The purpose of this paper is to identify the key target markets for U.S. shopping malls based on the age and family life experiences (i.e., marriage and having children) of the Mexican visitors. First, a three-factor ANOVA analysis is used to examine the impact of these characteristics on shopping expenditures, including the interaction effects. Then, a cluster analysis is performed in order to segment the market using age and the family life experience variables. Finally, recommendations are provided based on the expenditures and trip behavior by family life cycle stage.     

When sea becomes home

This paper speaks to the home/away debate in tourism research through a case study of leisure boating. Practice theory and affordance theory, participant observation and interviews with boaters touring or departing from Bohuslän, Sweden are used to illustrate how changes in material affordances and material setup co-transform practices and meanings. Through the introduction of house-like facilities, powered by the boat’s engines and employing home skills, some boats afford a family/single person a more comfortable and independent “stay at home” on the sea than in the past, while boating resembling camping is becoming an ex-practice. However, boats continue to afford mobility, for which boating skills are required. This paper thus challenges the theoretical opposition in tourism studies between home and away.     

Length of stay of international tourists in Spain: A parametric survival analysis

The goal of this paper is to study the determinants of length of stay of international tourists in Spain using a survival analysis approach. We incorporate unobserved heterogeneity using frailty models to account for misspecification or omitted covariates. The explanatory variables included in the econometric model of tourist demand in terms of length of stay were selected according to the neoclassical theory of consumer choice and the information available in the Tourist Expenditure Survey undertaken by the Spanish Institute for Tourism Studies. We analyze to what extent the tourists' socio-demographic profiles and the trip characteristics determine length of stay. We find that the most important factors are country of origin, destination, and time and budgetary constraints.     

Modeling Spatial Patterns of Recreational Boaters: Vessel,Behavioral, and Geographic Considerations

Abstract

A regression-based framework for modeling recreational boating patterns and estimating preferred on-water destinations was introduced. A survey of 500 boaters provided model input regarding vessel, behavioral, and geographic characteristics. This information was used to construct a travel network within a Geographic Information System to identify major network intersections (pivots) and to calculate the distance traveled along network segments between intersections, as derived model input. Model estimates of preferred destinations and use intensity were compared to mail survey results for validation. The average error between reported and estimated boating destinations was 4.3 miles for a regional application and 3.0 miles for a sub-regional application. In addition to vessel and behavioral considerations, the results highlighted the significance of geographic and network variables in modeling the spatial patterns of recreational boaters and destination choice.     

Editorial: research notes

Abstract

Although wilderness trips are typically co‐led, there is a deficit of research literature exploring the dynamics of co‐leadership in the field. This study was conducted to determine the skills and traits outdoor adventure trip leaders perceived to be important for their co‐leaders to possess on an extended outdoor trip. Utilizing Q‐methodology, a 36‐item instrument developed from the leadership literature was administered to 17 outdoor leaders. Three factors representing three distinct leadership beliefs were determined and are characterized by the titles: People‐Empowering Leaders, Wilderness‐Power Leaders, and Universal Leaders. Five trends in leader/co‐leader preferences are discussed. This study offers implications to practice in outdoor recreation for organizations and outdoor trip leaders.     

The effect of hard infrastructure on perceived destination competitiveness: The moderating impact of mobile technology

Hard infrastructure is an important topic to research because of its importance to perceived destination competitiveness. Besides, tourism suppliers who adopt mobile technology can improve visitors' trip experiences. Moreover, Malaysia, is experiencing declined destination competitiveness ranking and poor hard infrastructure development in Sarawak. The primary goal of this research is to examine the hard infrastructures as determinants of perceived destination competitiveness and the moderating effect of mobile technology from the visitor's perspective. A total of 190 valid data were collected for further analysis. The data were analyzed using PLS-SEM approach. The result revealed that transportation and accommodation have a significant relationship with perceived destination competitiveness. Additionally, the relationship between telecommunication infrastructure and perceived destination competitiveness is moderated by mobile technology. The current study's findings aided scholars and practitioners by providing useful data backed up by empirical evidence on the moderating effect of mobile technology and the direct relationship between infrastructure and perceived destination competitiveness.     

Information Search Behavior and Tourist Characteristics

SUMMARY

The Internet as a new form of media is impacting tourist information provision and acquisition. A better understanding of the use of the Internet and other information sources by tourists will benefit the marketing efforts of destination organizations. Based on a general consumer behavior theory by Berkman and Gilson (1986), this study examined the relationships between tourists' use of the Internet vs. other information sources and their characteristics. It was found that demographic characteristics of gender and household income and situational factors of trip purpose and travel party type were significantly related to tourists' choices of information sources; and such behavior was associated with their trip outcomes of accommodation types and expenditure. The study's implications were discussed in the context of destination marketing.     

Valuing Consumer Surplus for the Beach Resources at Ko Chang National Marine Park in Thailand

This paper presents recreation trip demand models from three beaches administrated by the Ko Chang National Marine Park in Thailand. In specific, we apply Poisson (POI) and negative binomial (NB) count data models to estimate consumer surplus (CS) attributed to tourism development. An onsite stratified random sample of 409 beach visitors was administrated along the shorelines of the marine park. The results show that the estimated CS of a Thai visitor is $244 per trip and $256 per trip, respectively, under POI and NB models. In contrast, the CS per trip of a foreign visitor is double that of the Thai visitor's. As all the potential beach visitors’ CS counted, it suggests that the beaches along the Ko Chang's coastline are highly valuable public resources. As a result, several important policy-making comments regarding the coastal park management are addressed.     

The determinants of Chinese visitors to Australia: A dynamic demand analysis

Although China has progressively become an important inbound tourism market for Australia, its demand elasticities have been little studied to date. This study examines the determinants of Chinese visitors to Australia using a dynamic time-series estimator. Interesting findings include a high income elasticity as a source of the continuous doubledigit growth rates in Chinese arrivals that Australia has experienced over the past two decades, together with relatively high total trip price elasticities for both short run and long run. A trend of Chinese outbound to Australia is also identified. From a policy perspective, the results confirm that keeping a low cost of visiting Australia, both ground and travel costs, is a good strategy to secure greater numbers of Chinese tourists.